[ { "id": "nobel-cajal-bio", "title": "Santiago Ramón y Cajal — Biographical (Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1906)", "url": "https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1906/cajal/biographical/", "publisher": "The Nobel Foundation", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Official Nobel biography. Verified 2026-08-08 — birth 1 May 1852 in Petilla, prize shared with Camillo Golgi for work on the structure of the nervous system." }, { "id": "nobel-ochoa-bio", "title": "Severo Ochoa — Biographical (Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1959)", "url": "https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1959/ochoa/biographical/", "publisher": "The Nobel Foundation", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Official Nobel biography. Verified 2026-08-08 — born in Luarca, prize shared with Arthur Kornberg, work on biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid." }, { "id": "sep-school-salamanca", "title": "The School of Salamanca (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/school-salamanca/", "publisher": "Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "First published 2019-03-22, substantive revision 2023-09-07. Covers Vitoria as founding figure, separation of ius gentium from natural law, Azpilcueta's quantity theory of money, Molina on just price." }, { "id": "mark-rigau-perez-2009", "title": "The World's First Immunization Campaign: The Spanish Smallpox Vaccine Expedition, 1803-1813", "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19329842/", "publisher": "Bulletin of the History of Medicine 83(1):63-94, Johns Hopkins University Press", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Catherine Mark and José G. Rigau-Pérez, 2009. Full text read (pp. 63-77) on 2026-08-08 — departure data, staff table, Zendala name-variant footnote 18, chronology of first vaccinations by territory." }, { "id": "franco-paredes-2005", "title": "The Spanish Royal Philanthropic Expedition to Bring Smallpox Vaccination to the New World and Asia in the 19th Century", "url": "https://academic.oup.com/cid/article-abstract/41/9/1285/278013", "publisher": "Clinical Infectious Diseases 41(9):1285-1289, Oxford University Press", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Franco-Paredes, Lammoglia, Santos-Preciado, 2005. DOI 10.1086/496930. Medical-history framing of the Balmis expedition." }, { "id": "flynn-giraldez-1995", "title": "Born with a 'Silver Spoon': The Origin of World Trade in 1571", "url": "https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/3372215/4433_UBA003000263.pdf", "publisher": "Journal of World History 6(2):201-221, University of Hawai'i Press", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giráldez, 1995. Thesis — global trade born 1571 with the founding of Manila as the entrepot linking American silver to Chinese demand." }, { "id": "acemoglu-johnson-robinson-2001", "title": "The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation", "url": "https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.91.5.1369", "publisher": "American Economic Review 91(5):1369-1401", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Settler mortality as instrument; extractive vs settler institutions and their persistence. Influential and much debated; used here for the institutional-economics frame, not for precise magnitudes." }, { "id": "pigafetta-first-voyage", "title": "The First Voyage Round the World, by Magellan", "url": "https://archive.org/details/firstvoyageround00piga", "publisher": "Hakluyt Society, London, 1874 (trans. Lord Stanley of Alderley)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Antonio Pigafetta's participant account of the 1519-1522 circumnavigation. Primary eyewitness narrative; dates and figures occasionally inconsistent, cross-checked against secondary literature." }, { "id": "new-laws-1542-facsimile", "title": "The New Laws of the Indies for the Good Treatment and Preservation of the Indians, Promulgated by the Emperor Charles the Fifth, 1542-1543", "url": "https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.35112204863734", "publisher": "Chiswick Press, London, 1893 (facsimile and translation, ed. Henry Stevens and Fred W. Lucas)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Facsimile of the original Spanish edition with literal English translation. Ordinances of 20 November 1542 and 4 June 1543." }, { "id": "nobel-echegaray-facts", "title": "José Echegaray — Facts (Nobel Prize in Literature 1904)", "url": "https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1904/eizaguirre/facts/", "publisher": "The Nobel Foundation", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — born 19 April 1832 Madrid, died 4 September 1916 Madrid, prize share 1/2 (with Frédéric Mistral), motivation quoted verbatim. The companion biography page prints 1833; the facts page's 1832 is used here." }, { "id": "nobel-echegaray-bio", "title": "José Echegaray — Biographical (Nobel Prize in Literature 1904)", "url": "https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1904/eizaguirre/biographical/", "publisher": "The Nobel Foundation", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — engineering school, career in government as Minister of Public Works and Finance Minister, turn to the stage." }, { "id": "nobel-benavente-facts", "title": "Jacinto Benavente — Facts (Nobel Prize in Literature 1922)", "url": "https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1922/benavente/facts/", "publisher": "The Nobel Foundation", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — born 12 August 1866 Madrid, died 14 July 1954 Madrid, motivation quoted verbatim." }, { "id": "nobel-benavente-bio", "title": "Jacinto Benavente — Biographical (Nobel Prize in Literature 1922)", "url": "https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1922/benavente/biographical/", "publisher": "The Nobel Foundation", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — Los intereses creados (1907) repeatedly called his masterpiece and most staged play; La Malquerida (1913) named among principal works." }, { "id": "nobel-jimenez-facts", "title": "Juan Ramón Jiménez — Facts (Nobel Prize in Literature 1956)", "url": "https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1956/jimenez/facts/", "publisher": "The Nobel Foundation", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — born 24 December 1881 Moguer, died 29 May 1958 San Juan, Puerto Rico, motivation quoted verbatim." }, { "id": "nobel-jimenez-bio", "title": "Juan Ramón Jiménez — Biographical (Nobel Prize in Literature 1956)", "url": "https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1956/jimenez/biographical/", "publisher": "The Nobel Foundation", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — Platero y yo named among his works." }, { "id": "nobel-aleixandre-facts", "title": "Vicente Aleixandre — Facts (Nobel Prize in Literature 1977)", "url": "https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1977/aleixandre/facts/", "publisher": "The Nobel Foundation", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — born 26 April 1898 Sevilla, died 14 December 1984 Madrid, motivation quoted verbatim (\"the great renewal of the traditions of Spanish poetry between the wars\")." }, { "id": "nobel-aleixandre-bio", "title": "Vicente Aleixandre — Biographical (Nobel Prize in Literature 1977)", "url": "https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1977/aleixandre/biographical/", "publisher": "The Nobel Foundation", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — first book Ambit 1928, National Literary Prize 1933 for Destruction or Love, Civil War in Republican zone, four years silenced afterwards, Spanish Academy 1950." }, { "id": "nobel-cela-facts", "title": "Camilo José Cela — Facts (Nobel Prize in Literature 1989)", "url": "https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1989/cela/facts/", "publisher": "The Nobel Foundation", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — born 11 May 1916 Iria Flavia, died 17 January 2002 Madrid, motivation quoted verbatim." }, { "id": "nobel-cela-bio", "title": "Camilo José Cela — Biographical (Nobel Prize in Literature 1989)", "url": "https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1989/cela/biographical/", "publisher": "The Nobel Foundation", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — La familia de Pascual Duarte and La colmena named among his works." }, { "id": "nobel-vargas-llosa-facts", "title": "Mario Vargas Llosa — Facts (Nobel Prize in Literature 2010)", "url": "https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/2010/vargas_llosa/facts/", "publisher": "The Nobel Foundation", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — born 28 March 1936 Arequipa, Peru; died 13 April 2025 Lima, Peru; motivation quoted verbatim. The Nobel Foundation lists him under Peru." }, { "id": "boe-vargas-llosa-1993", "title": "Real Decreto 1083/1993, de 2 de julio, por el que se concede la nacionalidad española por carta de naturaleza a don Jorge Mario Pedro Vargas Llosa", "url": "https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1993-18207", "publisher": "Boletín Oficial del Estado, no. 166, 13 July 1993", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.95, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — official state gazette record of the naturalization decree." }, { "id": "bourne-desoto-narratives", "title": "Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto in the Conquest of Florida (Gentleman of Elvas and Luys Hernández de Biedma, with Ranjel via Oviedo)", "url": "https://archive.org/details/narrativesofcare01bour", "publisher": "Allerton Book Co., New York, 1922 (ed. Edward Gaylord Bourne)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08. Participant and near-participant chronicles of the 1539-43 expedition; eyewitness but partisan and sometimes inconsistent, cross-read against Hudson's reconstruction." }, { "id": "ethw-telekino-milestone", "title": "IEEE Milestone: Early Developments in Remote-Control, 1901 (Telekine of Torres-Quevedo)", "url": "https://ethw.org/Milestones:Early_Developments_in_Remote-Control,_1901", "publisher": "Engineering and Technology History Wiki (IEEE)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — IEEE Spain Section milestone dedicated 15 March 2007; development from 1901, patents 1902-03, tests 1905-06 in Madrid and the Bilbao estuary controlling a crewed dinghy at over 1.25 miles; dirigible work with Kindelán and the Astra company." }, { "id": "niagara-aero-car", "title": "Whirlpool Aero Car (official attraction page)", "url": "https://www.niagaraparks.com/visit/attractions/whirlpool-aero-car/", "publisher": "Niagara Parks Commission", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — \"Designed by famed Spanish engineer, Leonardo Torres Quevedo, the Whirlpool Aero Car has been soaring the Niagara Gorge since 1916.\"" }, { "id": "randell-1982", "title": "From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush", "url": "https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1109/MAHC.1982.10042", "publisher": "Annals of the History of Computing 4(4):327-341, 1982", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Brian Randell. Verified 2026-08-08 — treats Torres y Quevedo (1852-1936) as one of the three key figures between Babbage's Analytical Engine and the electronic digital computer." }, { "id": "nasm-cierva-c8w", "title": "Cierva C.8W (C.8L Mk. IV) — collection object record", "url": "https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/cierva-c8w-c8l-mk-iv/nasm_A19320006000", "publisher": "Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — C.4 first flight 17 January 1923 at Getafe as the first successful rotary-wing aircraft of any kind; flapping-hinge explanation; C.8W as first successful rotary-wing aircraft flown in the United States (1928, imported by Pitcairn). No vital dates for Cierva on this page." }, { "id": "febs-salas-obituary", "title": "Obituary: Margarita Salas (1938-2019)", "url": "https://network.febs.org/posts/59791-obituary-margarita-salas-1938-2019", "publisher": "FEBS Network (Federation of European Biochemical Societies)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — Ochoa's encouragement 1958, NYU lab 1964, return to Spain 1967, phage phi29 program, most profitable CSIC patent, EPO lifetime achievement award June 2019." }, { "id": "blanco-salas-1989", "title": "Highly efficient DNA synthesis by the phage phi 29 DNA polymerase. Symmetrical mode of DNA replication", "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2498321/", "publisher": "Journal of Biological Chemistry 264(15):8935-8940, 1989", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.95, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Blanco, Bernad, Lázaro, Martín, Garmendia, Salas. Verified 2026-08-08 — highly processive polymerase, DNA chains over 70 kilobases, strand-displacement synthesis." }, { "id": "cabeza-de-vaca-relacion", "title": "The Journey of Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (Relación, trans. Fanny R. Bandelier)", "url": "https://archive.org/details/journeyofalvarnu00nune", "publisher": "Rio Grande Press, 1964 (reproducing the 1905 first English edition)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08. Cabeza de Vaca's own account of the Narváez expedition and his 1528-36 journey; eyewitness but retrospective and shaped by self-justification, read against Reséndez." }, { "id": "rsc-vanadium", "title": "Vanadium — Element information, history and uses", "url": "https://periodic-table.rsc.org/element/23/vanadium", "publisher": "Royal Society of Chemistry", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — \"Vanadium was discovered twice. The first time was in 1801 by Andrés Manuel del Rio\"; Paris chemists misidentified it as chromium; Sefström separated and named it (1831 per RSC)." }, { "id": "rjb-mutis-collection", "title": "Dibujos de la Real Expedición Botánica del Nuevo Reino de Granada (1783-1816) dirigida por José Celestino Mutis", "url": "https://mutis.rjb.csic.es/paginas/presentacion.php", "publisher": "Real Jardín Botánico, CSIC", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — holding institution's own project page; more than 7,100 expedition drawings digitized; expedition 1783-1816 under Mutis in present-day Colombia; crown-funded." }, { "id": "fmn-peral-submarine", "title": "Isaac Peral and the invention of the first electric submarine", "url": "https://artsandculture.google.com/story/isaac-peral-and-the-invention-of-the-first-electric-submarine-fundaci%C3%B3n-museo-naval/zQXxety-tI4XIQ", "publisher": "Fundación Museo Naval (Google Arts & Culture)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — launch 8 September 1888 at La Carraca; trials from 1889; first underwater torpedo launch 20 June 1890 off Cádiz; project rejected by the technical board amid ministerial obstruction; preserved at the Cartagena Naval Museum." }, { "id": "juan-ulloa-voyage", "title": "A Voyage to South America (Relación histórica del viage a la América Meridional, English translation)", "url": "https://archive.org/details/voyagetosouthame01ullo", "publisher": "English edition of the Madrid 1748 original, digitized by the Internet Archive", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08. Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa's own published account of the geodesic mission and Spanish America; participant account." }, { "id": "burnett-toledo-2001", "title": "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century", "url": "https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/science-in-context/article/abs/coherence-of-the-arabiclatin-translation-program-in-toledo-in-the-twelfth-century/E898FAE696E4D7EA152616BEB6D92345", "publisher": "Science in Context 14(1-2):249-288, Cambridge University Press, 2001", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Charles Burnett. Verified 2026-08-08 — reassesses Toledo's prominence; Gerard of Cremona and Dominicus Gundissalinus as principal translators with complementary programs." }, { "id": "plaw-113-229", "title": "Public Law 113-229 — Joint resolution conferring honorary citizenship of the United States on Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Viscount of Galveston and Count of Gálvez", "url": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-113publ229/html/PLAW-113publ229.htm", "publisher": "U.S. Government Publishing Office, approved 16 December 2014", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — full text read. Congressional findings (whereas clauses) are commemorative assertions; claims below attribute them as such where they concern historical judgment." }, { "id": "cv-pardo-bazan-bio", "title": "Biografía de Emilia Pardo Bazán (por Ana M.ª Freire López, UNED)", "url": "https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/portales/pardo_bazan/autora_biografia/", "publisher": "Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — signed academic biography; birth 16 September 1851 in La Coruña, La cuestión palpitante 1882-83, Los pazos de Ulloa 1886, 1916 chair of Contemporary Literature at the Universidad Central, death 12 May 1921." }, { "id": "cv-arenal-bio", "title": "Biografía de Concepción Arenal (por M.ª Ángeles Ayala Aracil, Universidad de Alicante)", "url": "https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/portales/concepcion_arenal/autora_biografia/", "publisher": "Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — signed academic biography; born Ferrol 31 January 1820; attended law lectures 1842-45 dressed as a man; 1860 academy prize won under her son's name; named Visitadora de Prisiones de Mujeres 4 April 1864; died 4 February 1893." }, { "id": "lindahall-azara", "title": "Félix de Azara — Scientist of the Day", "url": "https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/felix-de-azara/", "publisher": "Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering and Technology", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — twenty years in the Río de la Plata (1781-1801); quadrupeds volumes 1802 (pirated French translation 1801), birds 1802-05; Darwin \"constantly praised the accuracy of the 'highly regarded' Azara\" in the Journal of Researches and Zoology of the Beagle." }, { "id": "congreso-blog-1931", "title": "1 de octubre de 1931: la sesión en la que las mujeres dan el gran paso hacia la plena ciudadanía política", "url": "https://blog.congreso.es/1-de-octubre-de-1931-la-sesion-en-la-que-las-mujeres-dan-el-gran-paso-hacia-la-plena-ciudadania-politica/", "publisher": "Congreso de los Diputados (institutional blog)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — Campoamor on the drafting committee, the Kent-Campoamor debate, article 36 approved 161-121, suffrage text with age 23, first exercise of the vote in 1933." }, { "id": "hekint-servetus", "title": "Michael Servetus (ca. 1511-1553)", "url": "https://hekint.org/2017/11/14/michael-servetus-ca-1511-1553/", "publisher": "Hektoen International, A Journal of Medical Humanities", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — pulmonary transit described in Christianismi Restitutio; Galen's interventricular pores not found in dissection; burned at the stake in Geneva 1553 over anti-trinitarian theology; three surviving copies." }, { "id": "ic-zambrano-bio", "title": "María Zambrano, filósofa española — Biografía", "url": "https://www.cervantes.es/bibliotecas_documentacion_espanol/biografias/roma_maria_zambrano.htm", "publisher": "Instituto Cervantes", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — born 22 April 1904 Vélez-Málaga, died 6 February 1991 Madrid; studied under Ortega y Gasset among others; exile from 1939 (Paris, New York, Havana, Mexico); major works listed." }, { "id": "ic-zambrano-premios", "title": "María Zambrano — Premios", "url": "https://www.cervantes.es/bibliotecas_documentacion_espanol/biografias/roma_maria_zambrano_premios.htm", "publisher": "Instituto Cervantes", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — Premio Príncipe de Asturias de Comunicación y Humanidades 1981; Premio Miguel de Cervantes 1988." }, { "id": "ic-anuario-2025", "title": "El español crece 30 millones de hablantes en un año (nota de prensa del anuario El español en el mundo 2025)", "url": "https://cervantes.org/es/sobre-nosotros/sala-prensa/notas-prensa/espanol-crece-30-millones-hablantes-ano-5-anterior", "publisher": "Instituto Cervantes", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — native-command community over 500 million for the first time in 2025 (520M); 635.7M potential users; third mother tongue worldwide after Mandarin and Hindi; learner projections toward 100M." }, { "id": "cv-cervantes-bio", "title": "Biografía de Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (por Jean Canavaggio)", "url": "https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/portales/miguel_de_cervantes/autor_biografia/", "publisher": "Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — biography by Jean Canavaggio, the leading Cervantes biographer; baptism 9 October 1547 in Alcalá de Henares (birth date unknown), Lepanto 1571 and loss of use of the left hand, Algiers captivity from 1575, tax-collector years 1587-97, the two Quijote parts, death 1616." }, { "id": "sagrada-familia-history", "title": "History of the Temple (official site)", "url": "https://sagradafamilia.org/en/history-of-the-temple", "publisher": "Fundació Junta Constructora del Temple de la Sagrada Família", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — Gaudí took over the project in 1883, worked exclusively on it from 1914 until his death in 1926; Nativity façade and crypt inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage in 2005; construction continues 140+ years on." }, { "id": "ng-velazquez", "title": "Diego Velázquez (1599-1660) — artist page", "url": "https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/artists/diego-velazquez", "publisher": "The National Gallery, London", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — born 1599 Seville, apprenticed to Pacheco; 1623 portrait of Philip IV led to court appointment and exclusive right to paint the king; Rokeby Venus painted in Italy; Las Meninas self-portrait; Knight of Santiago 1658; died 1660." }, { "id": "pares-falla", "title": "Falla, Manuel de (1876-1946) — authority record", "url": "https://pares.mcu.es/ParesBusquedas20/catalogo/autoridad/66092", "publisher": "PARES, Portal de Archivos Españoles (Ministerio de Cultura)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — born Cádiz 23 November 1876, died Alta Gracia (Argentina) 14 November 1946; Pedrell's decisive influence; Paris 1907-1914 with Debussy, Ravel, Dukas; Granada 1920-1936; exile 1936-1946; Atlántida unfinished." }, { "id": "primeros-libros-cromberger", "title": "Cromberger, Juan (d. 1540) — Primeros Libros de las Américas", "url": "https://www.primeroslibros.org/spotlight/primeros-libros-de-las-americas/feature/cromberger-juan-d-1540", "publisher": "Primeros Libros de las Américas (multi-institution digitization project)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — royal permission 1537; June 1539 contract of Juan Pablos as compositor-administrator of the House of Cromberger in Mexico; printing monopoly for New Spain; Pablos kept the imprint name until at least 1544." }, { "id": "valencia-intl-jofre", "title": "The First Hospital for the Mentally Ill in Europe?", "url": "https://valencia-international.com/the-first-hospital-for-the-mentally-ill-in-europe/", "publisher": "Valencia International", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — Jofré (1364-1417), the 24 February 1409 incident and sermon, eleven citizen financiers, papal and royal (Martin of Aragon) backing, Hospital dels Ignocents; site remains near Calle Hospital. Local heritage publication; used with the AJP article for the scholarly claim." }, { "id": "ajp-first-asylum-2009", "title": "The Foundation of the First Western Mental Asylum", "url": "https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09030371", "publisher": "American Journal of Psychiatry 166(4), 2009", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Peer-reviewed. Full text paywalled to automated access; abstract content verified 2026-08-08 via indexed excerpts (sermon 24 February 1409; construction of the Spital dels folls, orats e ignocents from 15 March 1410; first hospital built solely for the mentally ill). Flagged for full-text re-verification." }, { "id": "encyclopedia-victoria", "title": "Victoria, Tomás Luis de (1548-1611) — encyclopedia entries", "url": "https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/literature-and-arts/music-history-composers-and-performers-biographies/tomas-luis-de-victoria", "publisher": "Encyclopedia.com (aggregating New Catholic Encyclopedia, Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, Encyclopedia of World Biography)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — Ávila choirboy, Collegium Germanicum in Rome 1565, Palestrina connection and succession, chaplain to Dowager Empress María from 1587, Officium Defunctorum 1605 as masterpiece, death Madrid 1611." }, { "id": "akmal-ibn-nafis-2010", "title": "Ibn Nafis — A Forgotten Genius in the Discovery of Pulmonary Blood Circulation", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2964710/", "publisher": "Heart Views 11(1), 2010 (open access via PubMed Central)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — Akmal, Zulkifle, Ansari. Ibn al-Nafis (1210-1288) described the pulmonary transit in his commentary on Avicenna's Canon, ~300 years before the European descriptions; manuscript rediscovered 1924; possible transmission to Servetus discussed but not proven." }, { "id": "ucm-cervantes-laureates", "title": "Lista de galardonados con el Premio Cervantes", "url": "https://www.ucm.es/data/cont/docs/391-2015-01-19-Lista%20de%20galardonados%20con%20el%20Premio%20Cervantes.pdf", "publisher": "Universidad Complutense de Madrid (course document)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — full text read. Year-by-year laureate list from 1976; 1976-1987 laureates are all men, María Zambrano (1988) is the first woman on the list; also confirms Vargas Llosa 1994 and Cela 1995." }, { "id": "eldiario-cela-censor", "title": "El censor censurado, cien años de Camilo José Cela", "url": "https://www.eldiario.es/cultura/libros/censor-censurado-camilo-jose-cela_1_4002270.html", "publisher": "elDiario.es", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — self-confessed regime informant in 1938; censor of magazines and pamphlets c. 1943-44; La colmena submitted to censorship 7 January 1946 and rejected, not published in Spain until 1963; RAE 2016 manuscript edition referenced. Press source; archival basis (AGA) noted in the wider reporting." }, { "id": "getty-roldana", "title": "La Roldana's Saint Ginés (exhibition page)", "url": "https://www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/roldana/", "publisher": "The J. Paul Getty Museum", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — Luisa Roldán 1652-1706, trained in Pedro Roldán's Seville workshop, appointed escultora de cámara in 1692 under Charles II, Saint Ginés (c. 1692, with painter Tomás de los Arcos) in the Getty collection. The page does not claim she was the first woman sculptor in Spain, and neither does this instance." }, { "id": "epale-camino", "title": "Camino de Santiago: a journey of European cultural exchange and learning", "url": "https://epale.ec.europa.eu/en/content/camino-de-santiago-journey-european-cultural-exchange-and-learning", "publisher": "EPALE, European Commission", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — \"in 1987 the Council of Europe chose this route as the first cultural path of the Continent\". EU-institutional platform; thin on other details." }, { "id": "oficina-peregrino", "title": "Pilgrim's Welcome Office — pilgrimage and certification (the Compostela and the Credencial)", "url": "https://oficinadelperegrino.com/en/statistics-2/", "publisher": "Oficina del Peregrino, Catedral de Santiago de Compostela", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — the cathedral's own office documenting the certification system (Compostela, Credencial, certificate of distance) and publishing pilgrim statistics." }, { "id": "ng-el-greco", "title": "El Greco (1541-1614) — artist page", "url": "https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/artists/el-greco", "publisher": "The National Gallery, London", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — born Crete (then Venetian), trained in Venice under Titian, Rome 1570, settled in Toledo by 1577 for the rest of his life; Escorial commission from Philip II not well received; Byzantine influence noted." }, { "id": "ng-goya", "title": "Francisco de Goya (1746-1828) — artist page", "url": "https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/artists/francisco-de-goya", "publisher": "The National Gallery, London", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — court painter to Charles III (1786), First Painter to Charles IV (1799), deaf after 1792 illness, Peninsular War atrocities recorded (3rd May 1808), black paintings, exile and death in Bordeaux 1824-28; Majas painted in response to Velázquez's Rokeby Venus." }, { "id": "congreso-const-1978", "title": "La Constitución española de 1978 (portal institucional)", "url": "https://www.congreso.es/cem/const1978", "publisher": "Congreso de los Diputados", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-08 — approved by the Cortes 31 October 1978, referendum 6 December, sanctioned 27 December, in force 29 December; \"la constitución del consenso\"; legal continuity of the transition; first explicit constitutional provision for political parties." }, { "id": "thomas-conquest", "title": "Conquest: Montezuma, Cortés, and the Fall of Old Mexico", "publisher": "Simon & Schuster, 1993", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Hugh Thomas. Standard narrative history of the conquest of Mexico, extensive use of Spanish and Nahua sources." }, { "id": "thomas-rivers-of-gold", "title": "Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire, from Columbus to Magellan", "publisher": "Random House, 2003", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Hugh Thomas. Covers 1492-1522, ending with the Magellan-Elcano circumnavigation." }, { "id": "elliott-imperial-spain", "title": "Imperial Spain 1469-1716", "publisher": "Edward Arnold, 1963 (Penguin editions since 1970)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "J. H. Elliott. Standard academic survey of Habsburg Spain, including crown finance and the role of American silver." }, { "id": "elliott-empires-atlantic", "title": "Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830", "publisher": "Yale University Press, 2006", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "J. H. Elliott. The central academic comparison of the Spanish and British colonial models used by the comparison object." }, { "id": "hanke-spanish-struggle", "title": "The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America", "publisher": "University of Pennsylvania Press, 1949", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Lewis Hanke. Foundational study of the 16th-century Spanish debates on the rights of the Indians, including the New Laws." }, { "id": "hanke-all-mankind", "title": "All Mankind Is One: A Study of the Disputation Between Bartolomé de Las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda in 1550 on the Intellectual and Religious Capacity of the American Indians", "publisher": "Northern Illinois University Press, 1974", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Lewis Hanke. The standard monograph on the Valladolid debate." }, { "id": "crosby-columbian-exchange", "title": "The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492", "publisher": "Greenwood, 1972 (30th anniversary ed. Praeger, 2003)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Alfred W. Crosby. Coined the term and defined the field." }, { "id": "cajal-recollections", "title": "Recollections of My Life (Recuerdos de mi vida)", "publisher": "MIT Press, 1989 (trans. E. Horne Craigie with Juan Cano)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Santiago Ramón y Cajal's autobiography. Primary self-account; used for his own framing of the neuron work, not for adjudicating priority disputes." }, { "id": "grice-hutchinson-salamanca", "title": "The School of Salamanca: Readings in Spanish Monetary Theory 1544-1605", "publisher": "Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1952", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Marjorie Grice-Hutchinson. Established the Salamanca theologians as early monetary theorists." }, { "id": "hamilton-american-treasure", "title": "American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501-1650", "publisher": "Harvard University Press, 1934", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Earl J. Hamilton. Classic quantitative study of bullion imports and Spanish prices; magnitudes refined by later scholarship but still the reference series." }, { "id": "wolf-conquerors-chroniclers", "title": "Conquerors and Chroniclers of Early Medieval Spain (including the Chronicle of Alfonso III)", "publisher": "Liverpool University Press, 2nd ed., 1999", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Kenneth Baxter Wolf, translated texts. The Chronicle of Alfonso III is the earliest narrative of Pelayo and Covadonga but was written c. 880s, some 160 years after the events, with clear ideological purpose. Low reliability reflects the chronicle, not the edition." }, { "id": "collins-arab-conquest", "title": "The Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797", "publisher": "Basil Blackwell, 1989", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Roger Collins. Critical academic treatment; skeptical of the legendary elaboration of Covadonga." }, { "id": "liss-isabel", "title": "Isabel the Queen: Life and Times", "publisher": "Oxford University Press, 1992", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Peggy K. Liss. Academic biography of Isabel I of Castile." }, { "id": "roca-barea-imperiofobia", "title": "Imperiofobia y leyenda negra", "publisher": "Siruela, 2016", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.55, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "María Elvira Roca Barea. Flagged polemic-adjacent per the editorial brief — cite only alongside stronger academic sources, and only for historiographical framing, never as sole support for a factual claim." }, { "id": "lanning-academic-culture", "title": "Academic Culture in the Spanish Colonies", "publisher": "Oxford University Press, 1940", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "John Tate Lanning. Study of colonial Spanish American universities and their curricula." }, { "id": "cook-born-to-die", "title": "Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492-1650", "publisher": "Cambridge University Press, 1998", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Noble David Cook. Standard account of epidemic disease as the principal driver of post-contact demographic collapse; surveys the wide range of population estimates." }, { "id": "hudson-knights-of-spain", "title": "Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun: Hernando de Soto and the South's Ancient Chiefdoms", "publisher": "University of Georgia Press, 1997", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Charles Hudson. The standard modern reconstruction of the de Soto route and of the Mississippian societies the chronicles describe." }, { "id": "hakluyt-malaspina-journal", "title": "The Malaspina Expedition 1789-1794: Journal of the Voyage by Alejandro Malaspina (3 vols.)", "publisher": "Hakluyt Society / Museo Naval, 2001-2004 (ed. Andrew David, Felipe Fernández-Armesto, Carlos Novi, Glyndwr Williams)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Malaspina's own journal in scholarly English translation. Commander's account — authoritative for the voyage, self-interested on controversies." }, { "id": "kendrick-malaspina", "title": "Alejandro Malaspina: Portrait of a Visionary", "publisher": "McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "John Kendrick. Academic biography covering the expedition, the reform memoranda and the 1795-96 downfall and imprisonment." }, { "id": "ferreiro-measure-earth", "title": "Measure of the Earth: The Enlightenment Expedition That Reshaped Our World", "publisher": "Basic Books, 2011", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Larrie D. Ferreiro. Academic-press history of the Franco-Spanish geodesic mission to Quito (1735-1744), including the roles of Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa." }, { "id": "harding-amphibious-1991", "title": "Amphibious Warfare in the Eighteenth Century: The British Expedition to the West Indies, 1740-1742", "publisher": "Boydell Press / Royal Historical Society, 1991", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Richard Harding. The academic standard on the Vernon expedition and the failed 1741 assault on Cartagena de Indias; British-archives based, useful precisely because it is not a Spanish celebratory source." }, { "id": "quintero-galvez", "title": "Bernardo de Gálvez: Spanish Hero of the American Revolution", "publisher": "University of North Carolina Press, 2018", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Gonzalo M. Quintero Saravia. The standard academic biography; Gulf campaign 1779-81 and Pensacola." }, { "id": "crosby-forgotten-pandemic", "title": "America's Forgotten Pandemic: The Influenza of 1918", "publisher": "Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed., 2003 (first ed. 1989)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Alfred W. Crosby. Standard academic history of the 1918 influenza, including the origin of the \"Spanish\" misnomer in wartime press censorship asymmetries." }, { "id": "resendez-land-so-strange", "title": "A Land So Strange: The Epic Journey of Cabeza de Vaca", "publisher": "Basic Books, 2007", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Andrés Reséndez. Modern academic narrative of the Narváez expedition and the survivors' journey." }, { "id": "kamen-spanish-inquisition", "title": "The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision", "publisher": "Yale University Press, 1997 (4th ed. 2014)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-08", "notes": "Henry Kamen. Archival revisionist study; execution estimates far below early-modern polemical figures, while documenting censorship and persecution." }, { "id": "unesco-mow-decreta-leon-1188", "title": "The Decreta of León of 1188 — The oldest documentary manifestation of the European parliamentary system", "url": "https://www.unesco.org/en/memory-world/decreta-leon-1188-oldest-documentary-manifestation-european-parliamentary-system", "publisher": "UNESCO, Memory of the World International Register", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-09. Inscription year 2013; reign of Alfonso IX of León (1188-1230); the register states the documents hold \"the oldest known written information regarding the European parliamentary system\" and that the institutional presence of the common people in higher-level decision making, with king, church and nobility, \"occurs for the first time through the elected representatives of the towns and cities\". Registered as SECONDARY on purpose: it is UNESCO's institutional description of the documents, not the twelfth-century documents themselves, which this instance has not read." }, { "id": "rsc-tungsten", "title": "Tungsten — Element information, history and uses", "url": "https://periodic-table.rsc.org/element/74/tungsten", "publisher": "Royal Society of Chemistry", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-09 — discovery credited to the Spanish brothers Juan and Fausto Elhuyar in 1783, who produced the acidic metal oxide and reduced it to the metal by heating with carbon; Scheele had investigated the mineral in 1781 and deduced a new metal without isolating it; the Elhuyars requested the name wolfram after wolframite; IUPAC adopted tungsten as the sole name in 2005 while the symbol W preserves wolfram." }, { "id": "rah-elhuyar-juan-jose", "title": "Juan José d'Elhuyar y Lubice — biography, Diccionario Biográfico electrónico", "url": "https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/6496/juan-jose-d-elhuyar-y-lubice", "publisher": "Real Academia de la Historia (served via historia-hispanica.rah.es)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-09 — born Logroño 1754 to a Basque-French family; in Paris 1772-1777 studying chemistry with Hilaire-Marin Rouelle; the Real Sociedad Bascongada de los Amigos del País set up chairs and laboratories of chemistry, mineralogy and metallurgy at Bergara; both brothers sent to Freiberg at the expense of the Ministry of Marine, studying geology under Werner. The record's dated event reads \"1783 28/ix — Los hermanos Juan José y Fausto Elhuyar, mediante reducción con carbón, obtienen un nuevo metal, al que llamaron volfram\"." }, { "id": "bne-gramatica-castellana", "title": "Gramática castellana (Nebrija, Salamanca 1492) — Spanish incunabula collection", "url": "https://www.bne.es/es/colecciones/incunables/incunables-espanoles/gramatica-castellana", "publisher": "Biblioteca Nacional de España", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-09 — the BNE calls it \"la primera gramática europea de una lengua romance\"; printing finished in Salamanca 18 August 1492 per the colophon, which carries no printer's name or mark; Mª Antonia Varona García's 1997 findings attribute the printing to Juan de Porras; prologue plus five books (Ortografía; Prosodia y Sílaba; Etimología y Dicción; Sintaxis; and teaching Castilian to speakers of another language); dedicated to Isabel la Católica, printed in gothic type with the dedication in red; the BNE holds two copies of the edition, shelfmark INC/2142. Institutional description of the copy, not the digitised text itself." }, { "id": "jonnpr-urdaneta-2022", "title": "Navegación e historia de la ciencia: Fray Andrés de Urdaneta y el Tornaviaje", "url": "https://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2529-850X2022000400009", "publisher": "Journal of Negative and No Positive Results (JONNPR) 7(4):409-421, 2022. DOI 10.19230/jonnpr.4911", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Ignacio Jáuregui-Lobera. Verified 2026-08-09 — departure from Cebú 1 June 1565, arrival at Acapulco 8 October 1565, the San Pedro standing northeast to roughly 39°N 170°E and then running east on the Kuroshio at Japanese latitudes to the North American coast; the return route sustained the Manila-Acapulco galleon for some 250 years. Reliability set at 0.7 deliberately: a competent history-of-navigation paper, but published in a medical journal outside its field of peer review, so its figures are carried at lower confidence and the trade significance is bound to the economic-history sources instead." }, { "id": "jmtr-mcdonald-1959", "title": "The Platinum of New Granada: Mining and Metallurgy in the Spanish Colonial Empire", "url": "https://technology.matthey.com/content/journals/10.1595/003214059X34140145", "publisher": "Platinum Metals Review 3(4):140-145, Johnson Matthey", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Donald McDonald, 1959. Verified 2026-08-09 — \"the first mention and identification of platinum in European literature\" is Antonio de Ulloa's, in the book published in 1748 describing his 1736-1746 visit to New Granada; the metal came from the placer gold washings of the Chocó district in what is now Colombia; platina is a derogatory diminutive of plata. The article is equally explicit that Ulloa's mention is a casual observation rather than a study — this instance registers both halves." }, { "id": "jmtr-moreno-garcia-1993", "title": "Early Studies of Platinum in Spain: The Contribution made by Joseph Louis Proust", "url": "https://technology.matthey.com/content/journals/10.1595/003214093X372102107", "publisher": "Platinum Metals Review 37(2):102-107, Johnson Matthey. DOI 10.1595/003214093X372102107", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "R. Moreno García, 1993. Verified 2026-08-09 — dates the European investigation of platinum from \"the formal announcement of the discovery of platinum by A. Ulloa in 1748\", then Scheffer (1752), Lewis (1754), Marggraf (1757), Macquer and Baumé (1758); in 1786 Pierre François Chavaneau and the silversmith Francisco Alonso were the first in metropolitan Spain to purify native platinum, the period Fagés y Virgili named the \"Platinum Age in Spain\"." }, { "id": "casa-museo-lope-comedias", "title": "Comedias — Lope y su obra", "url": "https://www.casamuseolopedevega.org/es/lope-y-su-obra/obras/comedias", "publisher": "Casa-Museo Lope de Vega, Comunidad de Madrid", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-09 — Pérez de Montalbán's Fama póstuma claims 1,800 comedias and 400 autos sacramentales, Lope himself calculated around 1,500; Rennert and Castro (1919) reduced the count to 426 comedias and 723 attributable titles, of which 219 lost and 78 of doubtful authorship; Morley and Bruerton (1940), working from strophic versification, fixed 316 comedias beyond doubt, 73 doubtful and 87 commonly attributed but not his; after losing lawsuits over unauthorised printings Lope obtained the printing privilege in 1617 and published Partes IX to XX himself, his son-in-law Luis de Usátegui continuing to Parte XXV." }, { "id": "quiroga-reglas-ordenanzas-santafe", "title": "Reglas, y ordenanzas para el gobierno de los hospitales de Santa Fè de Mexico, y Michoacan, dispuestas por su fundador el Rmo. y Venerable Sr. D. Vasco de Quiroga, primer obispo de Michoacan", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=QSx5kXUcEDsC&pg=RA1-PA1", "publisher": "Printed as the appendix (separately paginated) to Juan Joseph Moreno, Fragmentos de la vida y virtudes... de D. Vasco de Quiroga; Mexico: Imprenta del Real y mas Antiguo Colegio de S. Ildefonso, 1766", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Quiroga's own ordinances for the pueblos-hospitales, in the 1766 printing. Page scans opened and read 2026-08-09 (appendix pagination): RA1-PA1 the appendix title page and the ordinance on trades; RA1-PA4 the distribution of the product of \"las seis horas del trabajo en comun\" according to each family's need, with the surplus to obras pias and to the settlement's orphans, widows, aged, sick, crippled and blind; RA1-PA14 the huerta on every estancia, fruit trees \"de Castilla, y de la tierra\", flax, hemp, wheat, maize, barley, and the quarrying, carpentry, grana and cochineal work to be done once the fields are tended, \"porque no les dañe la ociosidad\", all \"al respecto de las seis horas dichas\"; RA1-PA20 the election of a Principal for three or six years and of three or four Regidores yearly, \"de manera, que ande la rueda por todos los casados habiles\", with the Rector's licence; RA1-PA23 the six ordinary hours shared equally; RA1-PA26 the salaried Boticario, Medico and Cirujano and the separate lodging of contagious patients. The volume is a full-view digitisation." }, { "id": "moreno-1766-vida-quiroga", "title": "Fragmentos de la vida y virtudes del V. Illmo. y Rmo. Sr. Dr. D. Vasco de Quiroga, primer obispo de la Santa Iglesia Cathedral de Michoacan", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=QSx5kXUcEDsC&printsec=frontcover", "publisher": "Juan Joseph Moreno; Mexico: Imprenta del Real y mas Antiguo Colegio de S. Ildefonso, 1766", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "An eighteenth-century devotional life, not a contemporary witness to the 1530s: registered separately from the ordinances it prints so that biographical claims do not borrow the appendix's tier. Its own title page (PP9, read 2026-08-09) names the author as \"ahora Rector del mismo Colegio Primitivo de San Nicolas\" — the college Quiroga founded — and states the college published it, so it is an interested source. Pages read 2026-08-09: PA13 (cap. III, the two hospitals founded two leagues from the capitals out of a salary of 600,000 maravedis plus 150,000 of ayuda de costa, which Moreno computes as 2,757 pesos fuertes and 28 maravedis); PA20 (the Hospital de la cuna for exposed infants at Santa Fe de Mexico); PA137 (Chichimecas \"reducidos, y pacificados\", the bishop advising the Emperor to exempt them from tribute; the text calls them \"aquella nacion barbara\"); PA191 (quoting Torquemada, 1615: Quiroga bought the lands around Santa Fe, consecrated bishop 1537, 28 years in the see). Pages read 2026-08-16 at &w=1600 through the same anchored click3 route — PA20 again, in full: the Greek Brephotrophio, the exposed children baptised, the salaried amas, the clothing and the passage to the town's ordinary work; PA21, the Indian children found drowned at dawn in the acequias of Mexico, the two explanations offered (the desperation of subjection; the settled finding of extreme maternal destitution), the twins called Coates, the attribution of the cause to a clause of Quiroga's testament, the sentence that the work ceased when its cause did, and the Colegio Seminario de Indios of S. Nicolas at Santa Fe with its reading, writing, canto llano and instruments, compared to Fuenleal's Santa Cruz at Tlatelolco and said to have shared its fate; PA51, cap. IX, the foundation of the college in the Barrio de Pascaro under a secular presbyter, the \"mozos Españoles, y limpios\" over twenty, and the design that the Indians joining it should teach the colegiales their language and learn Castilian, with the footnote accusing Gil Gonzalez Davila of confusing this college with others on his pages 95 and 112; PA52, the Tridentine constitutions, the forty colegiales of the 1576 deposition and the service to the cathedral held to be custom rather than obligation, and the December 1581 accounts of rector Melchor Hernandez Duarte; PA53, the purple bonete, the free teaching of all faculties, the lectures owed to the Indians of Patzcuaro and the barrios \"por haver contribuido con su trabajo personal à la fabrica del Colegio\", the abolition of the colegiales' election of their rector, and the long footnote on the absence of indigenous ordinations in the first century, Torquemada lib. 17 caps. 11-13, and D. Pablo \"Rey de Michoacàn\" as the first Indian cleric of whom mention is found; PA54, the testament clause on what would be lost if the college perished, the estancia of Xaripitio and two haciendas, the 1631 sale of that hacienda, the provision of the bishopric with ministers \"por mas de 200 años\", and the colegial who interpreted confessions for the first Jesuits; PA55, the 1576 informacion made \"à fin de conseguir del Rey, cierta merced\" with its ten witnesses and more than two hundred priests, the restriction of the original curriculum to Grammar, Moral Theology and Quiroga's lost penitential canons, the eighteenth-century chair of Philosophy, and the footnote on D. Antonio Vitzimengari y Mendoza, son of the last Caltzontzi, godson of viceroy Mendoza, disciple of Alonso de la Vera Cruz and governor of Tzintzuntzan; PA56, the move of college and patronato to Valladolid and the approach to fray Juan de San Miguel's Colegio de San Miguel at Guayangareo, with the footnote glossing Guayangareo as \"loma chata\" and the note that La Rea's history passes over the foundation in silence; PA57, the union of the two colleges on 10 October 1580, four months after the translation of the church, and Quiroga's dispositions on the patronato of the hospitals and the election of the rector; PA58, the royal patent given at Barcelona on 1 May 1543 accepting the patronazgo of hospital and college for the crown, which recites the college as taking \"los hijos de los Españoles legitimos, y Mestizos, y algunos Indios, por ser Lenguas\". Note that the royal text and Moreno's own narrative on PA51 do not agree about who was admitted; both are recorded and neither is preferred." }, { "id": "reales-ordenanzas-mineria-1783", "title": "Reales ordenanzas para la direccion, regimen y gobierno del importante cuerpo de la mineria de Nueva-España, y de su Real Tribunal General", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=jzBYAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA176", "publisher": "Signed by the King at Aranjuez, 22 May 1783, countersigned Josef de Galvez; this copy the Lima reprint, en la Casa de Niños Expositos, por D. Bernardino Ruiz, 1812", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The founding mining code of New Spain. The digitisation opened is the Lima 1812 reprint, not the Madrid 1783 original — recorded here because the title page (PP5) says so, and because the reprint is itself evidence that the New Spain code was being re-issued in Peru in 1812. Pages read 2026-08-09: PT1 (the date, \"Aranjuez a veinte y dos de Mayo de mil setecientos ochenta y tres. YO EL REI. Josef de Galvez\", taken note of in the Contaduria General de Indias at Madrid on 25 May 1783); PA3 (the Consejo de Indias consulted 23 April 1776 and the Real Cedula of 1 July 1776 erecting the mining guild as a formal body like the merchant consulados, with a Banco de Avios, a Colegio de Metalurgia and a new code funded from the doubled señoreage duty); and Titulo 18 articles 2-15 at PA176-PA182 (the 25 endowed places for \"Niños Españoles, o Indios nobles de legitimo nacimiento\"; free entry and free instruction for all day pupils; secular professors of the sciences, mathematics and experimental physics; masters of the mechanical arts and of drawing; the title Real Seminario de Mineria; the direction vested in the Director General de Mineria; six-monthly dissertations read to the Real Tribunal and archived for printing; annual public acts; three years' practice at the mining reales before examination and a title issued free of charge; and the samples of ore mine owners must deposit in the college's metallic cabinet)." }, { "id": "humboldt-ensayo-politico-t3-1822", "title": "Ensayo politico sobre el reino de la Nueva-España, tomo tercero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=D5Fla3_P_h8C&pg=PA242", "publisher": "Alej. de Humboldt, traducido al espanol por Don Vicente Gonzalez Arnao; Paris: en casa de Rosa, 1822", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Contemporary observer's account: Humboldt was in New Spain in 1803-1804 and reports the mining institutions as he found them, so this is a primary witness for their state around 1803 and not an institutional record of their founding. Title page read at PP7 (tomo tercero, Paris, casa de Rosa, 1822). Pages read 2026-08-09: PA242 (the tribunal's composition — a director, two deputies of the mining body, an assessor, two consultors and the judge of the juzgado de alzadas; the 33 diputaciones; the two general deputies elected from among the provincial ones; agents kept in Madrid; the director named in the footnote as \"Don Fausto de Elhuyar\"); PA243 (pupils of the colegio de mineria instructed at the state's expense and sent out to the diputaciones; Humboldt's judgement that the representative system \"tiene grandes utilidades\" because it sustains public spirit where citizens scattered over an immense territory barely know they have common interests, together with his wish that the director could influence provincial workings more; the tribunal's revenue of more than 200,000 duros a year from two thirds of the señoreage); PA244 (avios given \"con mas liberalidad que discernimiento\" — 170,000 pesos at once to a Pachuca miner, 214,000 to the Temascaltepec water mine — which \"nada han producido\"; the forced gratuitous gift of 500,000 duros to Madrid during the wars with France and England and a further three million lent, of which 1,400,000 still unpaid; footnote giving 25,000 pesos in tribunal salaries and 30,000 a year for the school, \"en donde se educan españoles, criollos e indios nobles\"); PA56-PA57 (the school's cabinet still lacking a complete collection of the country's minerals); PA155 (the tribunal and the school's professors among those who had long noticed the defects of the old methods, and why change was slow); PA386 (the 1821 Cortes mining commission's account of the collapse of the workings); PA309 (Elhuyar named as director of the mines of the kingdom of Santa Fe, in New Granada)." }, { "id": "recopilacion-indias-1681-t1", "title": "Recopilación de leyes de los reynos de las Indias, mandadas imprimir y publicar por la Magestad Católica del Rey Don Carlos II — Tomo Primero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=xekM1Eud-40C&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Madrid, por Julián de Paredes, 1681. Montserrat Abbey Library copy, digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The first edition. Page images read 2026-08-09 — PP7 engraved title page, \"va dividida en quatro tomos, con el Indice general, y al principio de cada Tomo el Indice especial de los titulos, que contiene. TOMO PRIMERO. En Madrid: Por Ivlian de Paredes, Año de 1681\"; PP9 the royal cédula licensing the printing, \"Fecha en San Lorenço á primero de Noviembre de mil y seiscientos y ochenta y vn años. YO EL REY. Por mandado del Rey nuestro señor, D. Francisco Fernandez de Madrigal\", which states that the Recopilación \"por mandado de los señores Reyes mis gloriosos Progenitores se havia començado, y continuado hasta este tiempo, en que por la gracia de Dios se ha acabado\", licences any printer of these kingdoms to print it on the Council of the Indies' account, and sets a penalty of five hundred ducats and loss of the books for unlicensed printing or sale; PP11 the índice of the títulos of Libros I and II, Libro I running from \"De la Santa Fé Catolica\" (fol. 1) through \"De los Hospitales\" (tít. 4, fol. 13) and \"De las Vniversidades, y Estudios generales, y particulares\" (tít. 22, fol. 110). Pages added 2026-08-16 for the interpretes-de-las-audiencias-de-indias and juzgado-de-bienes-de-difuntos objects, all read as page images: PA273-IA1 (the close of Libro II tít. XXVIII and the heading of \"Titulo Veinte y nueve. De los Interpretes\" with ley j entire, Philip II at Aranjuez 10 May 1583 and the salary clause of Philip III at Lisbon 7 October 1619), PA274 (leyes ij to vj, with the marginal Ordenanzas de Audiencias 297, 298, 301 and 306), PA274-IA1 (leyes vij to xj, including the two-tomín tariff per witness of Ord. 305) and PA275 (leyes xij to xiiij, the 1537 law on the Naguatlatos who said what the Indians had not said and the 1630 law requiring examination and the vote of the Indian cabildo); PA281-IA1 (Libro II tít. XXXII, \"Del Iuzgado de bienes de difuntos\", leyes ij to vij), PA283 (leyes xv to xvij, the caja, the depositario general's three per cent and the chest beside the royal treasury), PA284 (leyes xxj to xxv, the arca de tres llaves, the encomendero and priest securing a stranger's goods, the weekly opening and the separate book of the royal officials) and PA288 (leyes Lj to Lv, wills sent to the Casa de la Contratación in duplicate on different vessels and the ban on percentage fees)." }, { "id": "recopilacion-indias-1681-t4", "title": "Recopilación de leyes de los reynos de las Indias, con el Indice general — Tomo Quarto", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=e1MkyoifPkMC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Madrid, por Julián de Paredes, 1681. Montserrat Abbey Library copy, digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Fourth volume of the 1681 first edition. Page images read 2026-08-09 — PP5 engraved title page \"TOMO QVARTO … En Madrid: Por Ivlian de Paredes, Año de 1681\"; PP8 \"ERRATAS DEL QVARTO TOMO\", whose corrections are keyed to laws in the ninth book (e.g. \"Ley 14. tit. 28. lib. 9. fol. 18\", \"Ley 77. tit. 45. lib. 9. fol. 132\"), which is the direct evidence in this copy that the compilation runs to nine books and that Libro IX reaches título 45." }, { "id": "recopilacion-indias-1791-t2", "title": "Recopilación de leyes de los reynos de las Indias … Quarta impresión — Tomo Segundo (Libros IIII a VIII)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Lt41mzCz8zEC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Madrid, por la Viuda de D. Joaquín Ibarra, impresora del Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias, 1791. Complutense University of Madrid copy, digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Fourth impression, \"hecha de órden del Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias\", now \"dividida en tres Tomos\". Page images read 2026-08-09 — PP5 title page; PP7-PP8 índice of Libros IIII-VIII, including the nineteen títulos of Libro VI (tít. 1 \"De los Indios\" fol. 189, tít. 2 \"De la libertad de los Indios\" fol. 201, tít. 3 \"De las Reducciones, y Pueblos de Indios\" fol. 207, tít. 5 \"De los tributos, y tasas de los Indios\" fol. 225, tít. 6 \"De los Protectores de Indios\" fol. 242, tít. 10 \"Del buen tratamiento de los Indios\" fol. 272); PA1-PA3 (Libro IV tít. 1 \"De los descubrimientos\", including ley vj \"Que en las capitulaciones se excuse la palabra conquista, y usen las de pacificacion, y poblacion\", margin \"El mismo Ordenanza 29. de Poblaciones. D. Felipe IIII en Madrid á 11 de Junio de 1621. D. Cárlos II y la Reyna Gobernadora\"); PA12-PA14 (tít. 4 \"De las pacificaciones\", ley j margin \"D. Felipe II Ordenanza 139. de Poblaciones\", ley viij margin \"El Emperador D. Cárlos Ordenanza 8. de 1523\"; tít. 5 \"De las poblaciones\", ley j margin \"D. Felipe II Ordenanza 34. 35. y 36. de Poblaciones\"); PA19 (tít. 7 \"De la poblacion de las Ciudades, Villas y Pueblos\", ley j margin \"El Emperador D. Cárlos Ordenanza 11. de 1523. D. Felipe II Ordenanza 39. 7. y 40. de Poblaciones\"); PA242-PA243 (Libro VI tít. 6, leyes j to viij on the Protectores de Indios); PA272 (Libro VI tít. 10 ley j, the clause of Isabel the Catholic's testament). Further pages opened and read 2026-08-09 for the residencia and republica-de-indios objects: PP8, the indice of Libros IIII-VIII, which places \"De las residencias, y Jueces que las han de tomar\" at fol. 176, \"De las Reducciones, y Pueblos de Indios\" at fol. 207 and \"De los Caciques\" at fol. 245; PA176 (the close of Libro V tit. XIIII and the opening of tit. XV with leyes j and ij), PA177 (leyes iij, iiij and v), PA178 (leyes vj to viiij), PA179 (leyes x to xiiij, including the residencia of the visitadores de Indios and of the jueces repartidores de obrajes), PA180, PA181 (leyes xviij to xxj), PA183 (leyes xxvj to xxxj, including ley xxviij on publishing the edicts so that they come to the notice of the Indians), PA186 (leyes xxxviiij to xxxxiij) and PA189 (the close of the titulo with its cross-references, and the opening of Libro VI tit. I); PA210, PA211 and PA212 (Libro VI tit. III, leyes xj to xxiiij, including ley xv on Indian alcaldes and regidores and ley xxj on who may not live in an Indian town); PA245, PA246, PA247 and PA248 (Libro VI tit. VII, De los Caciques, leyes j to viiij). Pages added 2026-08-16 for the obrajes-de-las-indias object: PA106, the close of Libro IIII tít. XXV on the pearl fisheries and the heading of \"TITULO VEINTE Y SEIS. DE LOS OBRAGES\" with ley j entire (Philip IV, Instrucción de Virreyes de 1628, cap. 40, removing from viceroys, presidents and audiencias the power to licence an obraje); and PA107, carrying ley ij (Philip IV in Madrid, 22 November 1621, with the cross-reference \"Véase la ley 19. tít. 12. lib. 6.\"), which orders the mill kept \"continuamente abierto, para que entren, y salgan los Indios á su voluntad\" and that they \"gocen la misma libertad, que pudieran los Españoles\", ley iij (Philip II in the Bosque de Segovia, 27 September 1565) extending the Castilian cloth pragmatics, ley iiij (Philip III 1612 and Philip IV 1624 cap. 43) with both the ill-treatment motive and the Castile-trade motive in one clause, and the rubric of ley v on silk looms in the Ciudad de los Ángeles." }, { "id": "ordenanzas-1573-agi-facsimile", "title": "Ordenanzas de descubrimiento, nueva población y pacificación de las Indias dadas por Felipe II el 13 de julio de 1573 en el Bosque de Segovia — facsímil del original del Archivo General de Indias", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=pVoPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Madrid, Ministerio de Vivienda, Servicio Central de Publicaciones, 1973; facsimile of Archivo General de Indias, Indiferente General, legajo 427, libro XXIX, ff. 63-93. University of Texas copy, digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Page-by-page photographic facsimile of the chancery manuscript, not a typeset transcription. Page images read 2026-08-09 — PA1 the manuscript's own heading in sixteenth-century hand, \"El orden q[ue] se a de tener en descubrir y poblar\", with the printed caption identifying it as the AGI original; p. 13 (ordinances 7 to 10, on the ships, crews and victualling of an entrada) and p. 71 (ordinances 92 to 94), the latter carrying the folio number 93 and the inked seal of the Archivo de Indias, Sevilla. The hand is difficult and this object quotes no verbatim text from the facsimile; it is registered as evidence that the document exists as described, in the archive stated." }, { "id": "ibanez-cerda-1973-ordenanzas-intro", "title": "Introduction to the Transcripción de las Ordenanzas de descubrimiento, nueva población y pacificación de las Indias", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=pVoPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5", "publisher": "José Ibáñez Cerdá, Instituto de Cultura Hispánica, in Ministerio de Vivienda, Servicio Central de Publicaciones, Madrid, 1973", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Editorial matter prefacing the facsimile, read 2026-08-09 (pp. 3 and 5). States that Philip II promulgated the Ordenanzas on 13 July 1573; that they form 148 capítulos covering discoveries and the formation of new centres of government and settlement, with \"sitio para fundar, traza de plazas y calles, distribución de solares e industrias, higiene, defensas\"; that they belonged to the projected code of Juan de Ovando, 1569-1575, a work truncated by Ovando's death on 8 September 1575 while he presided over the Real Supremo Consejo de Indias, left incomplete and later absorbed into the compilations the Council commissioned; that the sequence of imperial phases ran discovery, then conquest and occupation under the Catholic Monarchs and Charles I, with Philip II turning to settlement and political organisation; that the word used is \"pacificación\", peaceful penetration being reserved to the religious and troops intervening only in a precise case; that the new Ordenanzas appear to have been sent to Viceroy Toledo in the Tierra Firme fleet in 1573 for immediate application; that the original is AGI, Indiferente General, legajo 427, libro XXIX, ff. 63-93; and that the text had previously been printed by Diego de Encinas in the fourth volume of his Cedulario, in Torres de Mendoza's Colección vol. VIII (Madrid 1867, p. 484 ff.) and in the Colección de documentos inéditos vol. XVI (Madrid 1871, p. 142 ff.)." }, { "id": "molina-vocabulario-1571-print", "title": "Vocabulario en lengua castellana y mexicana, compuesto por el muy Reuerendo Padre Fray Alonso de Molina, dela Orden del bienauenturado nuestro Padre sant Francisco", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=IK4rAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP3", "publisher": "En Mexico, en casa de Antonio de Spinosa, 1571; full-view digitisation of a copy bearing the bookplate of the E. Boban collection, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The 1571 sheets themselves, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Pages opened: PP3, the title page — \"VOCABVLARIO EN LENGVA CASTELLANA Y MEXICANA, COMpuesto por el muy Reuerendo Padre Fray Alonso de Molina, dela Orden del bienauenturado nuestro Padre sant Francisco. DIRIGIDO AL MVY EXCELENTE SENOR Don Martin Enriquez, Visorrey de la nueua España. EN MEXICO, En Casa de Antonio de Spinosa. 1571\", with the royal arms between; PP5, the Epistola Nuncupatoria to Viceroy Martín Enríquez; PP7 and PP8, the Prologo al Lector — Babel and the confusion of tongues, St Paul on being a barbarian to the one who does not understand you, Spain's own distress when Charles began to reign \"no mas de por no entenderse con los suyos, a causa de ser sus lenguajes diferentes\", the necessity of the language for preaching, for discovering impediments to marriage and for hearing confession and granting or refusing absolution, the comparisons of the judge who cannot follow the case and the physician who cannot follow the account of the wound, the harm done when courtesy and compliance are misread on both sides, and the naming of the Franciscan commissary general of New Spain fray Francisco de Ribera as the superior who pressed the work forward; PA1, the first page of the Castilian-to-Nahuatl vocabulary, \"A ANTE B, DELOS QVE COMIENÇAN EN A\"; RA1-PP4, the Prologo to the second part — the statement of purpose \"para ayudar a los ministros de la nueva yglesia … en la administracion dela palabra de Dios y delos sanctos Sacramentos a estos naturales\", the intent only \"començar a abrir camino\" into the \"mina inacabable\" of the language, Nebrija taken as the model, the decision \"de hazer esta segunda impression\" adding \"mas de quatro mil vocablos\" to the vocabulary \"impresso enel año de cinquenta y cinco que comiença en romance\" and composing the new one that begins in Mexican, and the two avisos on the alphabet: the language \"carece de algunas letras de nuestro Abece, que son las siguientes. b. d. f. g. r. s.\", so that after A come C, E, H, I, L, M, N, O, P, Q, T, V, X, Greek Y being unnecessary, and the deliberate departure from ordinary alphabetisation for tza, tze, tzi; and RA1-PT2, the closing leaf, where the colophon appears first in Spanish (\"Aqui hazen fin los dos vocabularios, en lengua castellana y nahual o Mexicana … en casa de Antonio de Spinosa: en el Año de nuestra redempcion de 1571\") and then again in Nahuatl (\"Nican tzonquiça yn ontetl vocabularios ynpan Castillan tlatolli yuan mauatlatolli … yehua Antonio de Spinosa Ypaniuitl. 1571 Años\")." }, { "id": "motolinia-historia-1858", "title": "Historia de los indios de la Nueva España, in Colección de documentos para la historia de México, tomo primero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=WJk6nlChEKYC&pg=PA14", "publisher": "Fray Toribio de Benavente (Motolinía), 1541; published by Joaquín García Icazbalceta, Mexico, Librería de J. M. Andrade / Imprenta particular del editor, 1858", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "A sixteenth-century eyewitness text in a nineteenth-century critical printing, which is why reliability is set below the tier: García Icazbalceta prints from manuscript and collates against the Kingsborough edition, and his footnotes on the pages read here record variants (\"Traian á México.—K.\", \"Hurtar.—MS.\", \"Faltan estas palabras en la ed. inglesa\"), so the wording is an editor's reconstruction and no autograph is being quoted. Pages read 2026-08-09: PR1, the collection's title page, \"COLECCION DE DOCUMENTOS PARA LA HISTORIA DE MÉXICO, TOMO PRIMERO\"; PA1, the head-title \"HISTORIA DE LOS INDIOS DE LA NUEVA ESPAÑA\" with the Epístola Proemial addressed to \"Illmo. Señor Don Antonio Pimentel, sesto conde de Benavente\"; PA6, on the Mexica succession; PA13, the close of the Epístola — \"Hecha en el convento de Santa María de la Concepcion de Tehuacan, dia del glorioso Apóstol San Matías, año de la redencion humana 1541.—Pobre y menor siervo y capellan de V. I. S.— MOTOLINIA, FRAY TORIBIO DE PAREDES\"; and PA14 to PA20, Tratado I capítulo I in full — the departure of Fray Martín de Valencia \"con once frailes sus compañeros\" on 25 January 1523, the framing sentence \"Hirió Dios y castigó esta tierra … con diez plagas trabajosas\", and each of the ten in order: smallpox off Narváez's ship and the dead buried under their own houses, the war dead compared with Jerusalem under Titus and Vespasian, the famine, the calpixques who \"mandan á los señores principales naturales de ella como si fuesen esclavos\", the tributes paid by selling children and lands with deaths under torture and in prison, the gold mines whose dead \"no se podrian contar\" and the gold \"como otro becerro por Dios adorado\", the rebuilding of Mexico City, the branding of slaves whose faces bore the letters of every owner, the road to the mines where \"apenas se podia pasar sino sobre hombres muertos ó sobre huesos\" and the carrion birds \"hacian gran sombra al sol\", and the factions among the Spaniards themselves. Also read: PA184 (Moctezuma's household) and PA238 (an editorial note by J. F. Ramírez on Nahua chronology), neither of which is cited. Pages added 2026-08-16, all in Tratado III: PA186, the close of capítulo VII, with the two-way ledger of what the Spaniards brought after them (horses, cows, livestock, clothing, dress, fowl, wheat, plants and seeds of flowers and garden stuff) set against what the Mexica brought and the industry with which they enriched the land, together with the phrase that those who lived there before lived \"como salvajes\" and the note that almost all the masons of the country are of Tenochtitlan or Texcoco; PA237, capítulo XVIII on the Val de Cristo and the valley of Atlixco, where they \"siembran y cogen cuando quieren\" and one wheat field is newly sown while another is in ear and another ready to cut, with the mulberries planted for silk and the judgement that the vega beats those of Granada and Orihuela; and PA241, the same chapter on Puebla — one fanega sown and a hundred reaped at the founding of San Francisco de los Ángeles, more than a hundred and fifty fanegas of trigo castellano elsewhere in New Spain, the fifteen years the bank of that stream had already been sown \"para el Español que tenia el pueblo de Cholollan en encomienda\", the land sown every year and yielding without manure, the hand sowing in camellones two or three grains to the hole \"como el maiz\", three hundred fanegas of maize for one, the ox teams \"al modo de España\" and the carts entering the city loaded with wheat, maize, firewood and timber." }, { "id": "garcilaso-comentarios-1829-t2", "title": "Primera parte de los Comentarios reales, que tratan del origen de los Incas, reyes que fueron del Perú — nueva edicion, tomo II", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=dVk-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1", "publisher": "El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega; first published Lisbon, 1609. This copy: Madrid, Imprenta de los hijos de Doña Catalina Piñuela, 1829", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Garcilaso's own text, in the Madrid 1829 reissue rather than the Lisbon 1609 original — recorded here because the title page says so and because a reprint two centuries later cannot be cited for the wording of the first impression. Pages read 2026-08-09: PR1, the title page (\"PRIMERA PARTE DE LOS COMENTARIOS REALES … ESCRITOS POR EL INCA GARCILASO DE LA VEGA, natural del Cozco, y capitan de S. M. NUEVA EDICION. TOMO II. MADRID: 1829\"); PR3 and PR4, the Proemio al Lector — the Spanish writers who tell things \"tan cortamente, que aun las muy notorias para mí … las entiendo mal\", Cuzco \"que fue otra Roma en aquel imperio\", the undertaking to authorise nothing great except with the Spanish historians themselves, the declared role of \"comento y glosa, y de intérprete en muchos vocablos indios, que como estrangeros en aquella lengua interpretaron fuera de la propiedad de ella\", the thanksgiving that the Eternal Majesty \"se dignó de sacar del abismo de la idolatría tantas y tan grandes naciones\", and the statement that two further books are being written on what passed among the Spaniards \"hasta el año de 1560 que yo salí de ella\"; PR5 and PR6, the \"Advertencias acerca de la lengua general de los indios del Perú\" — the three places of articulation that change meaning, the accent on the penultimate and the remark that those who accent the last syllable do so \"por no saber el lenguage\", the missing letters b, d, f, g, j, simple l, initial and medial rr and x, six or eight short of the Castilian abecé, the charge that Spaniards add them \"en perjuicio y corrupcion del lenguage\", the absence of a plural form, and the claim of standing \"me sea lícito, pues soy indio, que en esta Historia yo escriba como indio\"; PA53, the end of the uncle's narration — \"que tu padre y sus compañeros nos quitaron\" and the history recited \"con lágrimas de sangre … de ver nuestros Incas acabados, y nuestro imperio perdido\"; and PA54, Garcilaso's account of translating it \"de mi lengua materna, que es la del Inca, en la agena, que es la castellana\", with his admission \"antes la he acortado, quitando algunas cosas que pudieran hacerla odiosa\", followed by capítulo XVIII, \"De fábulas historiales del orígen de los Incas\", where rival accounts are called \"sueños ó fábulas mal ordenadas\".\nPages added 2026-08-16: PA341, the province of Colla, more than a hundred and fifty leagues long and too cold for maize, where \"cójese mucha quinua, que es como arroz\" and among the crops fruiting underground is \"una que llaman Papa; es redonda y muy humida\"; PA342, the frost, straw, gentle treading, pressing and sun that turn it into \"Chuñu\", and the statement that all of it grown on the lands of the sun and of the Inca was so treated and kept \"en los pósitos con las demas legumbres y semillas\"." }, { "id": "ximenez-quatro-libros-1615", "title": "Quatro libros de la naturaleza, y virtudes de las plantas, y animales que estan receuidos en el vso de medicina en la Nueua España", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=qQpFp_bImPMC&pg=PP1", "publisher": "Fr. Francisco Ximénez, from the Latin of Dr Francisco Hernández; En Mexico, en casa de la Viuda de Diego Lopez Daualos, 1615. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The 1615 Mexican imprint itself, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set below the tier because the compiler is a lay brother working at second hand from copies of Hernández he himself calls corrupt, and says so. Pages opened: PP1, the title page — \"QVATRO LIBROS. DE LA NATVRALEZA, Y VIRTVDES DE LAS plantas, y animales que estan receuidos en el vso de Medicina en la Nueua España, y la Methodo, y correccion, y preparacion, que para administrallas se requiere con lo que el Doctor Francisco Hernandez escriuio en lengua Latina. MVY VTIL PARA TODO GENERO DE gente q[ue] viue en estacias y Pueblos, do no ay Medicos, ni Botica. Traduzido, y aumentados muchos simples, y Compuestos y otros muchos secretos curatiuos, por Fr. Francisco Ximenez, hijo del Conuento de S. Domingo de Mexico, Natural de la Villa de Luna del Reyno de Aragon … En Mexico, en casa de la Viuda de Diego Lopez Daualos. 1615. Vendese en la tienda de Diego Garrido, en la esquina de la calle de Tacuba, y en la Porteria de S. Domingo\"; PP3, the licence of the Archbishop of Mexico Don Ioan de la Serna, \"En la Ciudad de Mexico, a veinte y siete dias del mes de Nouiembre, de mil y seyscientos y catorze años\", referring the examination to fray Luys Vallejo, with Vallejo's approbation (\"no hallo en el cosa contra nuestra sancta Fee Catholica que ympida su impresion, antes juzgo sera muy vtil y prouechoso para todo genero de gente que auita este nueuo mundo\"); PP5, the licence of the Dominican provincial fray Hernando Baçan, given \"en nuestro Collegio de portacali de Mexico, en treynta de Octubre, de 1614\", having seen the approbations of Padre Maestro Pedro de Hortigosa and Doctor Diego Cisneros, together with fray Bartholome Gomez's approbation of the book \"intitulado, Materia medicinal\", dated \"a doze de Iunio, del año de mill y seiscientos y catorze\"; PP7, the dedication to Baçan, calling the work \"vn verdadero trasumpto de muchas plantas y animales medecinales no conocidas, ni vistas de ninguno de los antiguos q[ue] en esta materia escriuieron\", signed \"Fr. Francisco Ximenez\"; PP9, the close of the prologue — medicines brought from Spain \"passando tanta inmensidad de mares, pierden de su virtud la mayor parte\", the many copies of Hernández \"suyas en el nombre y de todo punto corruptas, assi en los bocablos como en los medicamentos\", the naming of Fr. Augustin Farfan, Ioan de Barrios and Alonso Lopez de Hinojosa among those who had already printed from it, the author's \"perdida del oyr, potencia necessaria para aprender la lengua\", and the closing statement of purpose for \"los que viuen en estancias y minas, do no ay Medico ni Botica a donde acudir por el Remedio\"; PP13 (folio 2), \"DEL XOCHINACAZTLI, O FLOR de la oreja, l, hueinacaztli. CAP. IIII.\", with the remark that \"no ay otra cosa en los tianguez, y mercados de los indios que mas ordinariamente se halle ni que en mayor estima se tenga\" and its use in \"aquella tan celebrada beuida del cacao q[ue] llaman chocolate\" with vanilla and toasted \"texochilli\"; PA10, the copal chapters — \"copalquahuitl patlahuac\", \"CAP. III. DEL COPAL QVAVHXIOTL ò arbol leproso\", \"CAP. IIII. DEL COPAL MONTANO, ò Tepecopalliquahuitl\" — including the proposal that \"no seria trabajo perdido el hazerlo lleuar a España, y plantarlo en lo mas caliente de las tierras della\"; and PA198 (Parte segunda), the chapter \"DE LA Piedra de hijada, q[ue] llaman, tlilayotic\" and the warning to buyers \"a los q[ue] compran de los indios, estas piedras miren bien no los engañen, por q[ue] son tan bellacos\". Reopened and read again as page scans on 2026-08-15. Pages opened that day: PA85-IA1, \"CAP. XXXVI. De la yerba que los de Mechoacan llaman Pehuame\", with the judgement that had it been known in Spain \"no andara su partido bajo, ni se haria tanto caudal dela china, nidela sarçaparrilla, pues en facultad y valor les haze ventaja\", and the reflection that plants of our own gardens are little esteemed because \"siempre suelen agradar mas las cosas estrangeras\"; PA86-IA1, the administration of that root at Guastepec against fevers, two reales' weight of the powder in wine with honey, and the author's statement that he is never without it \"enesta botica de S. Domingo donde yo asisto\"; PA93, \"CAP. LI. Dela yerba que llaman picietl, y los de la ysla de S. Domingo, Tauaco\", with the names pito on the coast of Brazil, \"yerua sagrada\", and Nicotiana in French, the two species picietl and quauh iyetl, and the flowers likened to those of henbane \"q[ue] en España llamamos Veleno\"; PA117, \"CAP. LVI. De la china de Mechoacan\", the species native to that province \"adonde le llaman phaco\", and the opening of \"CAP. LVII. De la llamada Cozolmecatl, q[ue] quiere dezir sogas de las cunas\"; and PA166-IA1 (Parte segunda), two sarsaparilla syrups with their quantities, the note that on that order patients cure \"saliendo fuera de casa y andando à sus negocios\", and the referral of the reader to \"el Doctor Monardez en la primera parte delas drogas y medizinas que de las yndias lleuan à España\". Reopened and read again as page scans on 2026-08-16. Pages opened that day: PA147 (folio 149), carrying the heading \"CAP. XII. DE LA PLANTA LLAMADA METL, que quiere dezir, maguey\"; PA147-IA1, the inventory of the plant's uses - fence and guard of the heredades, leaves as roof tiles, stalks as beams, thread for alpargatas and lienzo in place of \"lyno, ycañamo y algodon\", spines as nails, pins, needles and war points, the spines used \"para oradar, las orejas, y por esta via mortificarse quãdo se ocupauã enel culto desus dioses\", and \"cinquẽta arrobas, y mas\" of liquor from a single plant yielding wine, vinegar, honey and sugar; PA148 (folio 150), the judgement on drinking \"q̃es loque esta gẽte mas desea … como si les pesasse de ser hõbres\", the medicinal uses of the sap, the scar treatment with a roasted leaf and saltpetre, the leaves cooked \"de vaxo tierra, q̃ llamã baruacoa\", and the heading \"CAP. XIII. DEL MAGVEY AMARILLO QVE llaman Metl coztli\"; PA59-IA1, \"CAP. XVIII. DE LA LLAMADA NACAZCOL, que dizen otros Tolohuatzin\", with the bone-setting sequence of resin, feathers and splints ending \"metẽ alos enfermos en los baños secos q̃ ellos llaman temazcalli\"; and PA114 with PA114-IA1, the chapter on the tlaltzilacayotli of Huexotzingo against the pains of the mal francés and the custom of putting the sick, a day after the purge, \"en el vaño vaporosso, que los llaman temazcalli dẽtro del qual los vañan con agua caliente\"." }, { "id": "ruiz-quinologia-1792", "title": "Quinologia, o tratado del arbol de la quina ó cascarilla, con su descripcion y la de otras especies de quinos nuevamente descubiertas en el Perú", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=MQymR6QHOxgC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Don Hipólito Ruiz, primer botánico de la Expedicion del Perú; Madrid, en la Oficina de la Viuda é Hijo de Marin, 1792. Bibliothèque du Muséum copy, full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The 1792 Madrid first edition, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set below the tier because the author is a participant reporting on the expedition he directed and on a Spanish claim of priority he is defending. Pages opened: PP5, the title page (\"QUINOLOGIA, O TRATADO DEL ÁRBOL DE LA QUINA Ó CASCARILLA … POR DON HIPÓLITO RUIZ, PRIMER BOTÁNICO de la Expedicion del Perú, Agregado al Real Jardin de Madrid, é Individuo de la Real Academia Médica Matritense. MADRID. EN LA OFICINA DE LA VIUDA É HIJO DE MARIN. AÑO DE MDCCXCII\"); PP9, the opening of the Prólogo — no remedy \"tan poderoso, tan seguro en sus efectos, ni dotado de tantas virtudes como la Cascarilla del Perú\", and \"A la Nacion Española se deben sin disputa, asi como la Conquista de aquellos Reynos, las primeras nociones que se comunicaron á Europa de este específico\", followed by the botanical expedition sent at the King's expense in 1777; PP11, Ruiz's own field account — recognising the true cascarillo in flower in 1779 in the Montañas de Cuchero, Provincia de los Panatahuas, \"á 85 leguas de Lima, y á mas de 140 de Loxa\", his appointment by the King as first botanist and head of the expedition, Dombey's return to Europe in 1784 for ill health, and the four further years in which he brought the species of cascarillos found up to seven; PP17, the losses — the wish to pay for plates of the drawings, the Flora Peruana y Chilense planned at 1300 species and 2500 descriptions, and the shipment \"remitió y perdió en el Navio del Rey, San Pedro de Alcantara … compuesta de 36 Macetas de Plantas vivas, y 54 caxones, con 800 Dibuxos, Esqueletos de Plantas, Semillas, Resinas, Bálsamos Minerales, Piedras y Conchas, Aves, Peces, y Animales desecados, y muchas curiosidades antiguas de los Indios gentiles. ¡pérdida lamentable!\", with the footnote dating the wreck \"contra la roca de Papona en las costas de Portugal, é inmediaciones de la Villa de Peniche … en la noche del dia 2 al 3 de Febrero de 1786\"; PA1, the opening of Parte Primera and Artículo Primero, \"Es probable que los Indios de la Provincia de Loxa, tuvieron nociones de la virtud de la Quina ó Cascarilla, y puesto en práctica el uso contra las fiebres intermitentes muchos años antes que los Españoles conquistasen el Perú\"; PA2, the trees \"exclusivamente propios de aquellos paises de América, pues no hay noticia de que se produzcan en ninguna de las otras tres partes del mundo\", and the tradition Ruiz collected in Peru that about 1636 an Indian of Loxa told the Corregidor of the bark's virtue and gave him the method of infusion \"según el alcance é inteligencia del Indio\", curing him in a few days, followed by the news in 1638 that the Vicereine had tercianas; PA3, the Viceroy Don Gerónimo Fernández de Cabrera, Conde de Chinchón, summoning the Corregidor to Lima and ordering him to make the trials \"en los Hospitales … con otros tercianarios antes de pasar á dársele á la Virreyna\", the successful trials and her recovery, La Condamine's memoir in the 1738 volume of the Real Academia de las Ciencias de Paris p. 232, the 1773 Paris Diccionario de materia médica article \"Quinquina\", the story of the lions chewing the quinos \"á que ellos mismos no dan entero asenso\", and Sebastian Bado's Anastasis corticis peruviani; PA4, the Countess distributing the bark gratis, the names \"Polvos de la Condesa\" and then \"Polvos de los Jesuitas\", the portions left with the Jesuits on her leaving Lima in 1640, the quantity sent to Cardinal de Lugo in Rome, Dr Juan de Vega selling the first pounds in Spain in 1640 \"á cien reales\", Ruiz's allocation of credit (\"No se le puede negar al Indio el merito de la noticia dada por él á su Corregidor de Loxa … pero debemos confesar que estos últimos fueron el móvil principal para la propagacion de la noticia de su eficacia\"), and the footnote that Linnaeus should have written Chinchona rather than Cinchona; PA5, the early prices — the pound at six pesos fuertes in Peru and twelve in Spain — the physicians of that century who \"despreciaban y vituperaban su uso\" on the authority of a Hippocratic aphorism, the later spread to Africa and Asia, and the shortage around Loxa that led gatherers to \"suplir la falta\" with other barks; PA6, the substitution with \"cortezas de otras especies de Cascarillos de inferior calidad … con las de otros Arboles muy diversos\", and the new sources opened in Quito, Cuenca, Jaen de Bracamoros, Caxamarca and Caxamarquilla, and in the montes of Riobamba, Zaruma, Caxanuma, Huaranda, Uritusinga and Alausí; and PA17, the argument for cultivation from the parallel of Erythroxylon Coca and the observation that cascarilleros will not establish plantations because \"el natural del hombre le inclina generalmente á desear ver en breve tiempo logrado el fruto de su trabajo\"." }, { "id": "recopilacion-indias-1791-t1", "title": "Recopilación de leyes de los reynos de las Indias … Quarta impresión — Tomo Primero (Libros I a III)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=P1xp68LXgw8C&pg=PP9", "publisher": "Madrid, por la Viuda de D. Joaquín Ibarra, impresora del Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias, 1791. Universidad Complutense de Madrid copy, full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The first volume of the fourth impression, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Title page at PP9 — \"RECOPILACION DE LEYES DE LOS REYNOS DE LAS INDIAS, MANDADAS IMPRIMIR Y PUBLICAR POR LA MAGESTAD CATOLICA DEL REY DON CARLOS II. NUESTRO SEÑOR. Va dividida en tres Tomos, con el Indice general, y al principio de cada Tomo el Indice especial de los Titulos que contiene. TOMO PRIMERO. QUARTA IMPRESION. Hecha de orden del Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias. MADRID MDCCLXXXXI. POR LA VIUDA DE D. JOAQUIN IBARRA, IMPRESORA DE DICHO REAL Y SUPREMO CONSEJO\", with the Complutense stamp. Pages opened and read: PA23 to PA25 and PA27 to PA30 (Libro I, titulo IIII \"De los Hospitales, y Cofradias\" — ley j \"Que se funden Hospitales en todos los Pueblos de Españoles e Indios\", margin \"El Emperador D. Carlos, y el Cardenal Gobernador en Fuensalida a 7 de Octubre de 1541\"; ley ij on siting, margin \"D. Felipe II en la Ordenanza 122 de Poblaciones, en el Bosque de Segovia a 13 de Julio de 1573\"; ley iij on the visitation of the hospitals of Lima and Mexico; ley iiij \"Que de lo tocante a los Hospitales de Indios no se saque para los Seminarios\"; leyes v and vj on the Hermanos del Beato Juan de Dios and the clauses numbered 1 to 30 of their rule; ley vij on the tomin the Indians of Peru pay for their hospitality and the accounting demanded of the corregidores; ley viij on the Hospital de S. Andres de Lima; ley viiij confirming the foundation and ordinances of the Hospital de Santa Ana de Lima, margin \"D. Felipe III en San Lorenzo a 3 de Septiembre de 1616\"; ley x \"Que el Hospital Real de Mexico sea a cargo del Arzobispo\", margin \"El Emperador D. Carlos, y el Cardenal Gobernador a 29 de Noviembre de 1540\", reciting Zumarraga's foundation for \"los pobres enfermos y llagados del mal de las bubas\"; ley xj confirming the ordinances of the Hospital de San Lazaro de Mexico, margin \"D. Felipe II en Lisboa a 11 de Junio de 1582\"; ley xij on the Hermanos del Hospital de San Hipolito de Mexico and the brief of Paul V; ley xiij on the accounts of the Colegio de San Juan de Letran and the Hospital Real de Mexico; ley xiiij on the hospital of Cartagena de las Indias; ley xv on the anchorage duty granted to the Hospital de San Lazaro de Cartagena). Also opened and read: PA133 (Libro I, \"De los Religiosos Doctrineros\", ley vij, which names \"falta del idioma\" among the causes for re-examining a religious already approved for a doctrina) and PA204 to PA206 (Libro I, titulo XXII \"De las Universidades\" — ley xxxxvj on the chairs of the lengua general at Lima and Mexico and wherever there are audiencias, ley xxxxviij on the salary of preceptors of grammar, ley xxxxviiij on the Mexico chair of \"las lenguas de la tierra\", ley l, ley lj on the Society of Jesus reading \"la lengua de los Indios\" freely in its college of Lima, ley liiij on the chair of Latin at Santiago de Chile, ley lv on the chair of the language at Quito and its failure, and ley lvj forbidding ordination without a certificate from the professor of the language). Opened and read as scans on 2026-08-12: PA653 to PA657, PA659 and PA660, which carry Libro III, titulo XVI \"DE LAS CARTAS, CORREOS, É INDIOS CHASQUIS\" from its opening on PA653 to the close of the volume (\"FIN DEL TOMO PRIMERO\") on PA660 — ley vj on free correspondence with the Indies, ley vij of 1592 on the inviolability of letters, ley viiij of 1551 on shipmasters delivering their packets, ley x of 1623 setting the Lima-Panama-Cartagena-Spain timetable, leyes xj and xij on forwarding at Cartagena and Veracruz, ley xvij of 1593 and ley xviij of 1620 on despatching couriers at the crown's cost, ley xviiij of 1638 on receipts, ley xx of 1630 on franked official letters, and leyes xxj of 1593 and xxij of 1618 on the Indian chasquis. One printer's slip worth recording: the verso running head on PA660 reads \"Libro III. Titulo VII.\" where the titulo is the sixteenth.\nPages added 2026-08-16: PA143 to PA149, Libro I titulo XVI \"DE LOS DIEZMOS\" - ley j on the tithes belonging to the crown \"por concesiones Apostolicas de los Sumos Pontifices\" and their earmark for the churches; ley ij, the arancel of Granada 5 October 1501 extended to the Indies, with the grain list, the rule that the tithe is paid whole \"sin sacar primero la simiente, ni la renta, ni otro gasto alguno\", and on PA144 the insertions \"Otrosi se pague Diezmo del arroz\" and \"Paguese Diezmo del cacao\" among the livestock, dairy, tree-fruit, vine, olive, garden, honey and silk clauses; PA147, the close of ley xj forbidding prelates to make Indians carry the tithes on their backs \"aunque digan que lo quieren hacer de su voluntad ... porque deseamos relevar a los Indios del trabajo\", ley xij putting the tithe on encomenderos \"de todo el maiz, cacao, axi y algodon\", ley xiij deferring the question of the Indians' own tithes with a margin running from Monzon 1533 to \"D. Felipe IIII en esta Recopilacion\", and ley xiiij exempting \"oro, plata, perlas, piedras, metales y otras cosas reservadas en las Bulas Apostolicas\"; PA148, ley xvj tithing the king's own haciendas, ley xvij removing the exemption of the knights of Santiago, Calatrava and Alcantara, ley xviij on fishing, hunting and the chase, ley xviiij abolishing rediezmos, and ley xx abolishing personal tithes and ordering prelates to revoke contrary censures; PA149, ley xxij on topping up the bishop's quarter to five hundred thousand maravedis and ley xxiij, the division, with the two novenos for the crown and \"las tres sean para la fabrica de la Iglesia Catedral y Hospital\"." }, { "id": "olmos-arte-1547-simeon-ed", "title": "Arte de la lengua mexicana (1547), printed as the text of Grammaire de la langue nahuatl ou mexicaine", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=JRbyU_srQfwC&pg=PA7", "publisher": "Fray Andrés de Olmos, 1547; text established from two manuscripts by Rémi Siméon and printed at Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1875", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Olmos's own sixteenth-century text, but at one remove: reliability is set below the tier because what is printed is an editor's text established in 1875 from two manuscript copies, no autograph being available. Pages opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-09: PA7 and PA8, carrying two prologues. The first, anonymous and by a lettered Franciscan, records that the work was commissioned from \"Fr. Andres de Olmos\" by \"el Reuerendo padre fray Martin de Hojacastro, que entonces era comissario general en aquellas partes y despues sucedio en obispo de Tlaxcala\", who called in \"otros muy essenciales frailes de la mesma orden\"; that it was not printed \"por la falta de inprentas que ay alla\" and the death of the printer at that juncture; and that fray Francisco de Bustamante afterwards carried to Spain \"esta arte y un bocabulario de la mesma lengua escripto por otro padre de nuestra sagrada religion\" to have them printed, but died with his business pending, \"cuya muerte fue causa para que la inpression de los dichos libros no se solicitasse\". The second is Olmos's own \"PROLOGO AL LECTOR\": \"Dos cosas, muy amado lector, me compelieron a poner mano en esta pequeña obra: que fueron la caridad y obediencia de mi prelado, por lo qual no con menos temor que osadia compli este mandamiento deseando a gloria y honra de N. S. I. C., y salud de las almas destos naturales indios, abrir a sus sieruos, si quiera, una senda: la qual, otro quien el fuere seruido darle mas-lumbre, haga camino\"." }, { "id": "simeon-1875-olmos-introduction", "title": "Introduction to the Grammaire de la langue nahuatl ou mexicaine, composée en 1547 par le franciscain André de Olmos", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=JRbyU_srQfwC&pg=PR3", "publisher": "Rémi Siméon; Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1875", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Editorial matter prefacing the 1875 edition, registered separately so that claims resting on the editor do not borrow the tier of Olmos's text. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09: PR1, the title page — \"GRAMMAIRE DE LA LANGUE NAHUATL OU MEXICAINE, COMPOSÉE, EN 1547, PAR LE FRANCISCAIN ANDRÉ DE OLMOS, ET PUBLIÉE AVEC NOTES, ÉCLAIRCISSEMENTS, ETC. PAR RÉMI SIMÉON. PARIS. IMPRIMERIE NATIONALE. M DCCC LXXV\"; PR3, the opening of the Introduction, tying the publication to the Commission scientifique du Mexique attached to the ministry of public instruction, 1864-1868, whose work was interrupted by political events, and describing Olmos as a contemporary of the Spanish conquest who acquired his knowledge of several idioms of the country by living among the Indians; PR5, Olmos's death at Tampico on 8 October 1571, his teaching of Latin at the college of Santa-Cruz in Mexico in the chair first held by the Frenchman Arnaud de Bassace, and the list of his writings in Nahuatl (Arte de la lengua mexicana, Vocabulario, El juicio final, Pláticas que los señores mexicanos hacian a sus hijos, Libro de los siete sermones, Tratado de los siete pecados mortales, Tratado de los sacramentos, Tratado de los sacrilegios); PR7, the judgement that the Arte, finished in 1547, preceded by twenty-five years the grammar of Alonso de Molina, \"la plus ancienne de toutes celles qui ont été imprimées\", that Olmos \"ouvrit et prépara la voie des études grammaticales en langue nahuatl\", and that his manuscript served later grammarians and lexicographers, \"car ils ont souvent donné les mêmes règles et les mêmes exemples\", with the footnote recording that Torquemada named the two Spaniards Francisco Ximenez and Alonso Rengel as the first grammarians in the language before citing Olmos as \"el que sobre todos tuvo don de lenguas\", author of \"el arte mas copioso y provechoso de los que se han hecho\" and of works in Totonac and Huastec; PR9, the failed attempt of 1562, which lapsed on the death of Olmos's protector Francisco de Bustamante, who had undertaken in a voyage to Spain to solicit the privilege from Philip II, and Siméon's conclusion that no Mexico edition of 1555 can have existed and that the Arte is published as an entirely unpublished work; and PR11, the establishment of the text from two manuscripts — Bibliothèque nationale, fonds espagnol no 259, formerly no 8172, bought by Colbert about 1665 for the king's library, and one belonging to the Paris publisher Maisonneuve — with the footnote recording a further copy at the Biblioteca Nacional in Madrid and Aubin's copy, said to have belonged successively to Las Casas and to Torquemada, which the editor was not given sight of; the same page records that the Pláticas que los señores mexicanos hacian a sus hijos are printed here and that \"le pieux franciscain a parfois ajouté des pensées chrétiennes\" to them." }, { "id": "mendieta-historia-eclesiastica-indiana", "title": "Historia eclesiástica indiana, obra escrita á fines del siglo XVI — libro IV, capítulo XV, on the Colegio de Santa Cruz", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=e0Aa0Glxa6UC&pg=PA414", "publisher": "Fray Gerónimo de Mendieta, written at the end of the sixteenth century; first published by Joaquín García Icazbalceta, Mexico, Antigua Librería, 1870. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Mendieta's own sixteenth-century text, but at one remove and by an interested party: reliability is set below the tier because what is printed is an editor's text established in 1870 from manuscript, and because the author is a Franciscan writing his own order's mission and arguing the college's case against its critics. Page scans opened and read 2026-08-09 — PA414 to PA418, that is the end of cap. XIIII, the whole of \"CAPITULO XV. De la fundacion del colegio de Santa Cruz, que se edificó en la ciudad de México para enseñar á los indios en todo ejercicio de letras\" with the side-note \"Colegio de Santa Cruz en Tlatelulco\", and the opening of cap. XVI. Contents relied on - grammar first read to the Indians in the chapel of S. José at the convent of S. Francisco under Fr. Pedro de Gante, the first master of grammar being \"Fr. Arnaldo de Bassacio, de nacion frances, doctisimo varon y gran lengua de los indios\"; the order of the viceroy D. Antonio de Mendoza, \"padre verdadero de los indios\", to build a college in the barrio of Tlatelulco a quarter of a league from S. Francisco, the viceroy having \"edificó el colegio á su costa\" and given it estancias and haciendas of his so that the Indian collegians be sustained from their rent; the recruitment of boys \"de diez á doce años, hijos de los señores y principales de los mayores pueblos ó provincias de esta Nueva España, trayendo alli dos ó tres de cada cabecera ó pueblo principal, porque todos participasen de este beneficio\", about \"cien niños ó mozuelos\" being gathered; the opening procession from S. Francisco with the viceroy, the bishop of Mexico D. Fr. Juan de Zumárraga and the bishop of Santo Domingo D. Sebastian Ramirez, president of the audiencia, three sermons preached and the party dining in the refectory at Zumárraga's cost; the refectory, the long dormitory with beds on wooden platforms \"por causa de la humedad, y la calle en medio\", each collegian with \"su frazada y estera, que para indios es cama de señores, y cada uno su cajuela con llave para guardar sus libros y ropilla\", the light and guards at night, the hours and the Te Deum laudamus; the masters \"en la latinidad (despues de Fr. Arnaldo de Bassacio) á Fr. Bernardino de Sahagun y á Fr. Andrés de Olmos, y en la retórica, lógica y filosofía al doctísimo Fr. Juan de Gaona\"; the two arguments of the college's opponents, that Latin was \"de ningun provecho era para la república\" — which \"la experiencia ha mostrado ser falsísimo\" — and that Latin learning might lead to heresies and \"serian bastantes para revolver y alborotar los pueblos\", with Mendieta's answer; the translations made with the collegians' help and printed \"que de otra manera no pudieran\"; their help in examining marriages and administering the sacraments and their election \"por jueces y gobernadores en la república, y lo han hecho mejor que otros, como hombres que leen y saben y entienden\"; the case of \"D. Antonio Valeriano, indio gobernador de la ciudad de México\", who read grammar in the college and then governed Mexico City \"poco menos (y no sé si mas) de treinta\" years \"con general aceptacion de los vireyes y edificacion de los españoles\"; the \"tiempos dorados\" under the founder and the aid of two or three hundred ducats a year obtained from the Emperor by D. Luis de Velasco the elder, after whose death \"ninguna cosa se le ha dado, ni ningun favor se le ha mostrado, antes por el contrario, se ha sentido disfavor en algunos que despues acá han gobernado\", who wished to take from the Indians and apply the benefit to Spaniards, \"porque parece tienen por mal empleado todo el bien que se hace á los indios\"; the anecdote of the cleric who knew no Latin and was worsted by a collegian over \"natus ex Maria Virgine\", with the moral \"cada uno trabaje de saber lo que es de su oficio, y por ser él ignorante, no quiera que los otros tambien lo sean\"; and the close, \"Con todo esto ha cesado el enseñar deveras latin á los indios … y el favor y calor muerto, y así se ha ido todo cayendo\", the walls remaining good and the halls augmented by Fr. Bernardino de Sahagun who sustained it until his death, the short-lived teaching of the Indians' own medicine \"que ellos usan en conocimiento de yerbas y raices\", \"mas esto todo se acabó\", and the college by then serving only to teach the Indian boys of Tlatelulco to read, write and good customs." }, { "id": "icazbalceta-1870-mendieta-advertencia", "title": "Advertencia to the first edition of Mendieta's Historia eclesiástica indiana", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=e0Aa0Glxa6UC&pg=PR5", "publisher": "Joaquín García Icazbalceta; Mexico, 1870", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Editorial matter prefacing the 1870 first edition, registered separately so that claims resting on the editor do not borrow the tier of Mendieta's text. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09 — PR5 and PR6. The editor states that in the prologue to the second volume of his Coleccion de Documentos para la Historia de México, published in 1866, he announced the printing of a third volume that would be occupied entirely by Mendieta's Historia Eclesiástica Indiana; that the work began shortly afterwards, was retarded by unforeseen circumstances, and now appears not as a third volume of that Coleccion but as an entirely separate work, since there was no plausible reason to tie so large a work to the other two volumes of loose pieces and buyers would otherwise hold a truncated third volume; that the first two volumes \"fueron impresos en mi casa, y en gran parte por mis propias manos\", his press having passed in 1867 into other hands, in which this volume was nevertheless executed under his immediate direction; and that over long years he had devoted to the enterprise all the time he could dispose of, \"solo, sin auxilio de nadie\". Signed \"México, 31 de Diciembre de 1869. JOAQUIN GARCIA ICAZBALCETA.\"" }, { "id": "waters-1970-iberian-bases", "title": "The Iberian Bases of the English Art of Navigation in the Sixteenth Century", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=aE1NGdUh-VwC&pg=PA3", "publisher": "David W. Waters (Deputy Director, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich); Coimbra, 1970 — paper read to an international meeting on the history of nautical science, printed with the recorded discussion", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Modern scholarship, read as page scans on 2026-08-09 — a British naval historian's assessment of what English navigation owed to Portugal and Spain, which is why it is used here rather than a Spanish account of the same material. Pages opened and read: PA1, the half-title \"DAVID WATERS / THE IBERIAN BASES OF THE ENGLISH ART OF NAVIGATION IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY / COIMBRA - 1970\"; PA3, the opening argument that the need of seamen to determine the position of their ship is pre-eminent among the causes of the scientific method, and that solutions were \"first developed by Portuguese and Spanish scholars and applied by Portuguese and Spanish seamen\"; PA5 and PA7 on the birth of the science of nautical astronomy by 1460 and on the training problem, with the footnote \"M. CORTES, translated by R. EDEN, The Arte of Navigation, London, 1561. The Spanish edition was written in 1545 and published in Seville in 1551\"; PA9 to PA12 on the Rule of the Pole Star, solar declination tables, Zacuto's Almanack Perpetuum compiled 1473-1478 at Salamanca and first printed at Leiria in 1496, the \"first scientific gazetteers\", and the latitude scale added to the portolan chart; PA13, the Casa de Contratación \"established in Seville in 1503, on the lines of the older Casa da India in Lisbon\", Ferdinand's 1508 hydrographic office and school of navigation with the padron real supervised by a Piloto-Major, the manufacture and testing of instruments and the examination of pilots as \"a matter of strictly formulated routine\", the Casa behind the preparations for Magellan's expedition, the struggle over magnetic variation won by Sebastian Cabot as Piloto-Major from 1518, Admiral Guillen's judgement that \"The principle and traditional maritime countries of Europe learned their navigation from Spanish works\", and Enciso's Suma de Geographia of 1519 as the first published Spanish navigation manual, carrying the first printed Spanish sailing directions for overseas; PA14, Faleiro's Tratado del Esphera (Seville, 1535), Pedro de Medina's Arte de Navegar of 1545 \"translated into English and published in London in 1581 and again in 1595\" as \"a standard English text book\", Sebastian Cabot's thirty years as Pilot-Major before being invited to England in 1548 to teach the English the art of navigation, and Richard Eden's 1555 translation of Oviedo's account of the routes to the West Indies; PA15, Stephen Borough's 1558 visit to the Casa de Contratación, Eden's translation at Borough's behest of Martin Cortes's Breve Compendio de la Sphera y de la arte de navegar of 1551 as The Arte of Navigation, Waters's judgement that it was \"the most formative, the most influential book after the Bible in the English language\" and that \"More than any other it shaped the destiny of the English nation and of the English-speaking peoples\", Drake's seizure of Iberian pilots, charts and rutters in 1577-80, the observation that in Bourne's Regiment of the Sea of 1574, the first English-written book on the art of navigation, \"virtually all its material was of Lusitanian origin\", Cortes's Arte still being published in 1630, and Cortes's dedication to Charles V, \"I saye that I am the first\"; PA16, Waters's refusal \"to subscribe to the view that it was ever easy, least of all for the pioneers, to invent ways and means to find the latitude and the time at sea in order\", Edward Wright's 1610 remark that \"in our time the whole art of Navigation is groune to much greater perfection\", and the conclusion that virtually all the art then practised by English seamen \"was based upon the Iberian invention in the middle of the fifteenth century, of the science of nautical astronomy and upon the instrumental inventions made and the technical skills developed in the resultant art of navigation by Portuguese and Spanish scholars and seamen\"; and PA16 to PA17, the recorded discussion — A. Cortesao restating Portuguese priority and adding \"the English and the peoples of the whole world\", W. Washburn objecting that \"solving the problem of longitude\" must be considered relative to purpose and degree of accuracy achieved, and Ernst Crone noting that Medina was translated into Dutch (1545) and Bourne into Dutch (1580), that a number of later editions of Zamorano and of Bourne's book are based on Portuguese versions, and that the Dutch mathematician Cornelis Douwes later invented the double-altitude method of computing latitude used by navigators of all seafaring nations from 1750 to 1850." }, { "id": "gamboa-comentarios-minas-1761", "title": "Comentarios a las ordenanzas de minas, dedicados al catholico rey, nuestro señor, Don Carlos III", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=YmY3XDGx24AC&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Don Francisco Xavier de Gamboa, diputado del Consulado y Comercio de la Nueva-España en la Corte de Madrid; Madrid, en la Oficina de Joachin Ibarra, calle de las Urosas, 1761. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The 1761 Madrid first edition, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set below the tier because Gamboa is an advocate: he writes as the Mexico City consulado's deputy at court, arguing a case for the mining interest of New Spain and against critics of the Indies trade. Pages opened and read: PP5, the half-title \"COMENTARIOS A LAS ORDENANZAS DE MINAS\"; PP7, the title page, naming the author \"Colegial de el Real, y mas antiguo de San Ildefonso de Mexico, Abogado de la Real Chancilleria de aquella Ciudad, y de Presos de el Santo Oficio de la Inquisicion, su Consultor por la Suprema, y Diputado de el Consulado, y Comercio de la Nueva-España en la Corte de Madrid\", \"CON APROBACION, Y PRIVILEGIO DEL REY\", Madrid, Joachin Ibarra, MDCCLXI; PP31 and PP32, the close of the prologue — the dependence of commerce on the mines and of the mines on the avios, the promise to give notice of the mining districts, their distance from Mexico, the state of the mines and the caxas reales, and the statement that \"el nobilissimo Arte Metalico tiene sus propias voces facultativas, mutuadas algunas de el Idioma Indico en su origen\", \"corrompidas por los Españoles\", of which the most usual are explained (a full list being \"empressa para un Diccionario\"), the work being offered as \"utilidad de la Republica\" and \"grande honor nuestro, y de nuestra Patria\"; PA1, Capitulo Primero and Ordenanza Primera, on the incorporation of the mines of gold, silver and quicksilver into the royal patrimony; PA22, on the ordinances and the Indians; PA79, where Gamboa prints at length the invective against the Indies mines that he then answers — including \"Disputaban Indios, y Españoles ventajas en la barbarie\", the charge that Spaniards \"trataban a los Indios peor que si fuessen bestias\", the question \"Que avia de producirnos una tierra habitada con tanta sangre inocente?\", and \"Para ellos cabamos nuestras minas, para ellos conducimos a Cadiz nuestros thesoros\" — with his own paragraph 16 calling such declamations \"vanas … e invectivas contra los efectos visibles de la alta Providencia\", and the footnote citing a memorial of Don Martin Gonzalez de Cellorigo to Philip III; PA80, Gamboa's own case that from the minerals of gold and silver come \"las poblaciones, de estas la civilidad, y reduccion de los Indios; de aqui el consumo, la labranza, y los derechos\", and his figures for the export of Peruvian and Mexican silver via Ulloa's computation to 1724; PA392, the summary of the sections of Capitulo XXII, including \"31. Invencion de el beneficio de Azogue\", \"42. Utilidades de el beneficio de veinte y quatro horas\", \"44. Sus inventores, y prolixos experimentos, que se hicieron\", and \"50. Beneficio de Colpa, o Caparrosa: su Inventor, y modo de probar la Caparrosa\"; PA406, the opening of section IX \"DE EL BENEFICIO DE LOS METALES POR AZOGUE\"; PA407, on the perfecting of the process by art and experience, the qualities required of \"un buen Azoguero\", the comparison \"Para dar punto a la Azucar, cuesta mucho en los Ingenios un buen Maestro. Y para dar el punto a la Plata, se ha de confiar de un gran barbaro? Dotados, y examinados deben ser los Azogueros\", and the grinding of ore in \"Artes, e Ingenios de agua, de 6. mazos de madera por vanda, con cabezas, como de 4. arrobas de Hierro\"; PA410, section X on the \"beneficio por cazo\", with the note that \"Barba aprecia infinito este beneficio\"; PA411, section XI \"DE EL BENEFICIO PARA RENDIR EL ORO, Y PLATA en veinte y quatro horas\", including \"Se escusan los repassos, el sutilizar, y destruir el Azogue, ahorrandose el gasto, y ocupacion de Indios\", and \"Descubrieron este Arte Pedro Gonzalez de Tapia, y el Capitan Pedro de Mendoza Melendez en la Nueva-España en 1643. siendo Virrey el Conde de Salvatierra, en cuya presencia, y de los Ministros de la Real Audiencia de Mexico, se hicieron experimentos con la precaucion debida al fin de su solidez, y certeza\"; and PA414, section XII on the beneficio de colpa, \"lo descubrio Don Lorenzo Phelipe de la Torre Barrio y Lima, dueño de Minas en el Assiento de San Juan de Lucanas en el Peru en 1738. se imprimio en Lima en 1738. se reimprimio en Madrid en 1743\", with the remark that after so many experiences and authorities the twenty-four-hour beneficio \"era digno … de averse perpetuado\" and had instead fallen into oblivion." }, { "id": "sonneschmid-amalgamacion-1825", "title": "Tratado de la amalgamacion de Nueva España", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Tjk7AAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Don Federico Sonneschmid; Paris, Galeria de Bossange (padre), and Mexico, Libreria de Bossange (padre), Antoran y Cia., 1825", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "A practising mineralogist's technical description of the patio process as worked in New Spain, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set below the tier because the treatise is posthumously \"sacado a luz\" by an editor signing D. J. M. F., so the printed text is an editor's, and because Sonneschmid is an interested party to the technical controversy the same volume records. Pages opened and read: PP7, the title page — \"TRATADO DE LA AMALGAMACION DE NUEVA ESPAÑA; ESCRITO POR DON FEDERICO SONNESCHMID, Y SACADO A LUZ POR D. J. M. F. PARIS, GALERIA DE BOSSANGE (PADRE); MEGICO, LIBRERIA DE BOSSANGE (PADRE), ANTORAN Y Cia. 1825\"; PA10, on the amalgam gathered every eight or fifteen days from the cracks of the tahonas, cleaned, burnt and refined in a small refining furnace, and on gold that \"resiste a veces el frotamiento y trituracion con el azogue en la tahona y pasa por todo el beneficio del patio sin amalgamarse\"; PA11, chapter IV \"Materiales e ingredientes que se emplean en el beneficio por patio\" — common salt and the magistral as the principal ingredients, the magistral being \"el ingrediente maestro de este beneficio\", identified as the yellow copper mineral (copper sulphide) ground and reverberated and therefore a substance containing blue vitriol, with the observation that it is never used purified, that \"muy pocos azogueros saben lo que es\", and that they attribute its virtue falsely to ground and reverberated copper; PA20, on the tree \"que los indios llaman jicalquahuitl\", whose fruit yields the two cups \"que llaman Jicaras o chacuales\" used for the tentadura or assay of the tortas, made by the Indians of the pueblo of Olinalan, varnished and coloured within and figured without, and required for assay purposes to be black or blue inside since red and green ones deceive the eye; and PA56, on ores proper and improper for the patio process. Chapter and page references for \"patio\" were located with the volume's own search index at PR12, PA10, PA11, PA56, PA83, PA85, PA91, PA122, PA127 and PA143." }, { "id": "sonneschmid-1825-editor-prologo", "title": "Editor's prologue to the Tratado de la amalgamacion de Nueva España", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Tjk7AAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3", "publisher": "D. J. M. F., editor; Paris and Mexico, 1825", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Editorial matter prefacing the treatise, registered separately so that claims resting on the editor cannot borrow the tier of Sonneschmid's own text. Page PR3, read 2026-08-09, describes the barrel-amalgamation apparatus tried in New Spain — barrels turning on their own axes by gearing, driven by horses or mules, charged with ore already ground in the tahonas together with salt, quicksilver, small plates or pieces of copper and sufficient water, and run without interruption for twenty-four hours — and records the outcome: \"Desde el primer ensaye que se hizo con metales conocidos, no solo dio menos plata que por el beneficio comun del patio, sino que la perdida de azogue era enorme, y mayores todavia los otros gastos\", the silver coming out so impure that even after burning and refining it did not reach the standard of eleven dineros; and it adds that Sonneschmid \"no quiso convencerse del mal resultado de este primer ensaye\", attributing it to accidents on reasons the editor calls \"muy debiles\", the same experiments repeated always giving the same bad results." }, { "id": "solorzano-politica-indiana-1736-t1", "title": "Política Indiana, compuesta por el Doct. D. Juan de Solórzano Pereyra, dividida en seis libros — first of the two tomos (Libros I-III)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=huEykw_YtzYC&pg=PA56", "publisher": "Juan de Solórzano Pereira; tercera impresión, ilustrada por el Lic. D. Francisco Ramiro de Valenzuela. Madrid, por Matheo Sacristán, 1736. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set below the tier for two reasons stated here rather than buried: the author is a crown judge and Council of the Indies minister arguing for the justice of his own government's title and policy, and the 1736 text is a posthumous \"tercera impression ilustrada\" whose editor Ramiro de Valenzuela added matter that is not always separated from Solórzano's on the page. A cataloguing caution as well - Google labels this volume \"Tomo segundo de la politica indiana\", but the running foot reads \"Solorzan. Polit. Ind. tom. I.\" and Libro Segundo opens at printed page 56, so it is the FIRST of the two tomos. Pages opened and read - PP5, the binder's cover title \"POLITICA INDIANA DEL SEÑOR DON JUAN DE SOLORZANO ILUSTRADA, Y AÑADIDA\"; PP7, the title page (\"POLITICA INDIANA, COMPUESTA POR EL DOCT. D. JUAN DE SOLORZANO PEREYRA, CAVALLERO DEL ORDEN DE SANTIAGO, DEL Consejo del Rey Nuestro Señor en los Supremos de Castilla, y de las Indias. DIVIDIDA EN SEIS LIBROS … SALE EN ESTA TERCERA IMPRESSION ILUSTRADA POR EL Licenc. D. Francisco Ramiro de Valenzuela … y en dos Tomos. CON LICENCIA. EN MADRID: Por Matheo Sacristan. Año de 1736\"), whose summary of contents runs from \"todo lo tocante al Descubrimiento, Descripcion, Adquisicion, y Retencion de las mesmas Indias\" through \"las personas de los Indios, y sus Servicios, Tributos, Diezmos, y Encomiendas\"; PP9, the dedication \"AL REY NUESTRO SEÑOR DON PHELIPE IV. EN SU REAL, Y SUPREMO CONSEJO DE LAS INDIAS\", in which Solórzano records that by order of Philip III he \"passè à las Indias Occidentales con plaza de Oidor de la Real Audiencia de Lima en el Perù, en el año de M.DC.IX.\" and was ordered to attend to and write up whatever he judged fitting to their law and government, and that he wrote first in Latin, \"De Indiarum Iure, & Gubernatione\", before turning it into Spanish; PA56, the opening of \"LIBRO SEGUNDO DE LA POLITICA INDIANA. EN QUE SE TRATA DE LA LIBERTAD, ESTADO, Y condiciones de los Indios. Y à què servicios personales pueden ser compelidos por el bien publico\", with capítulo I \"DE LA LIBERTAD DE LOS INDIOS, Y QUAN DESEADA, y encargada ha sido siempre por nuestros Reyes\", its sumario of 38 heads, and paragraph 1 acknowledging that \"en esta parte tambien nos muerden, y calumnian los mal afectos, oponiendonos, que los hicimos, y hacemos esclavos, privandolos de la libertad natural, y del dominio, y disposicion de sus bienes, y haciendas\", together with paragraph 3 on Bishop Tomás Ortiz of Darién, who before Charles V \"se atreviò à decir, y afirmar, que eran hombres nacidos in servitute\"; PA57, the continuation of the same capítulo, where Solórzano writes that in many of the wars waged on the Indians \"huvo causa, y justificacion muy bastante\" for taking the defeated as slaves, and refers the enslavement of \"los Negros de Ethiopia, que se cogen, y transportan del Africa … por los Portugueses\" to Luis de Molina, Rebelo and other authors; PA62, the opening of the capítulo on personal service, with the definition taken from José de Acosta, the argument that compulsion \"contradice à la libertad, la qual, segun la doctrina de Aristoteles, y nuestros Jurisconsultos, es una facultad natural\", the judgement that the encomenderos' service is \"injusto, è indigno de permitirle\", the reference to Miguel de Agia's discourses printed at Lima in 1604, and the New Laws of 1542 clause \"Que ninguna persona se pudiesse servir de los Indios por via de Naboria, ni Tapia, ni otro modo alguno contra su voluntad\"; PA63, the chain of cédulas of 1549, 1555, 1563, 1568 and 1591, including the 1555 order to the Audiencia of Mexico and the complaint that encomenderos kept the wives and daughters of their Indians in their houses \"como en carcel privada, que les hacian hilar, y texer … como si fueran esclavas suyas\"; and PA66, on the Cédula del Servicio Personal of Valladolid, 24 November 1601, whose second chapter orders that no Indians be given to any individual but that they be compelled to go out and hire themselves in the public squares by the day or the week, going \"con quien quisieren, y por el tiempo, que les pareciere de su voluntad, y sin que nadie los pueda tener contra ella\", and on the declaratory cédula of 1609, whose chapters 29 and 30 refuse mita Indians for the private households of churchmen and of viceroys, oidores and inquisitors alike - \"porque, aunque esto sea de alguna incomodidad para los Españoles: pesa mas la libertad, y conservacion de los Indios\" - followed by the note that the viceroy of Peru, the Marqués de Montes Claros, began enforcement \"comenzando à quitarse à si propio los Indios de Mita\". Pages added 2026-08-09 for the republica-de-indios object: PA197, the close of cap. XXVI and the heading and full sumario of Libro II cap. XXVII, \"DE LOS CACIQUES, O CURACAS de los Indios, y su jurisdiccion, y succession\"; PA199, paragraphs 9 to 15 of that chapter, on the cedulas conserving the ancient customs and governments of the Indians, on the succession of cacicazgos from fathers to sons, and on the viceroys of New Spain treating cacicazgos as offices to be filled by election. This 1736 setting uses the long s throughout and the argument runs across numbered paragraphs, which is why the claims drawn from PA199 are held at 0.7." }, { "id": "belena-recopilacion-sumaria-1787-t2", "title": "Copias á la letra ofrecidas en el primer tomo de la Recopilación sumaria de todos los autos acordados de la Real Audiencia y Sala del Crimen de esta N. E. — Tomo Segundo", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=0itnL4OvtDsC&pg=PP3", "publisher": "Eusebio Bentura Beleña, oidor of the Audiencia of Mexico; México, por D. Felipe de Zúñiga y Ontiveros, calle del Espíritu Santo, 1787. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "A compilation of documents printed verbatim, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set below the tier because the compiler is an insider printing the regulations of a court he served: his own title page styles him \"Asesor de la Renta de Correos, del Juzgado General de Naturales y del Real Tribunal General del Importante Cuerpo de Mineria\", and the cartel transcribed at pages 199-203 is one he himself drafted. Pages opened and read - PP3, the title page in full (\"COPIAS A LA LETRA OFRECIDAS EN EL PRIMER TOMO DE LA RECOPILACION SUMARIA DE TODOS LOS AUTOS ACORDADOS DE LA REAL AUDIENCIA Y SALA DEL CRIMEN DE ESTA N. E. Y PROVIDENCIAS DE SU SUPERIOR GOBIERNO: De varias Reales Cédulas y Ordenes que, despues de publicada la Recopilacion de Indias, han podido recogerse … POR EL DOCTOR DON EUSEBIO BENTURA BELEÑA … TOMO SEGUNDO. CON LICENCIA. MEXICO: Por D. Felipe de Zuñiga y Ontiveros, calle del Espiritu Santo, año de 1787\"); PP7, the \"INDICE DE LAS REALES CEDULAS, ORDEnes, Bandos y demas Disposiciones copiadas en este segundo tomo\", keying 55 numbered copies to the summaries in the first tomo; PA198, articles XVII to XIX of Bernardo de Gálvez's bando on the treatment of Indians on haciendas, dated \"en México á 3 de Junio de 1784\" and republished 22 March 1785, requiring a copy of the bando to be kept in every hacienda under a five-hundred-peso penalty, expressly prohibiting \"encierros, prisiones, chirriones y castigos\", ordering a general visitation of the whole Audiencia district by one of the oidores every six years, and directing the justices to make it known to the Indians \"por medio de Intérprete … imponiendoles perfectamente en su tenor\" so that any Indian wronged may go to the justice, who is to give redress \"á costa del Amo que los agraviare\"; PA199, the royal order of El Pardo, 23 March 1773, from D. Julián de Arriaga to viceroy Antonio María Bucareli, forbidding overseers to drive Indians to the fields at a horse's pace with a whip, ordering that they work only from sun to sun with two hours' rest from twelve to two and sleep at home with their wives where the town is near, \"porque lo contrario es impedirles su libertad y tratarlos como á esclavos, que tan estrechamente prohiben las Leyes\", and the opening of copy number 47, Bernardo de Gálvez's publication of the auto of 6 December 1784 by Beleña as \"Oydor de esta Real Audiencia y Asesor de mi Juzgado General de Naturales\"; PA200 to PA202, the nine providencias of that cartel - a copy of the arancel of fees to be posted \"en la parte pública y pronta del Juzgado general, para que lo puedan leer todos los que á ella entraren, y principalmente los mismos Indios\"; sworn statements of fees by the Relator, Escribano, Solicitadores, Intérprete and Ministro Executor, distinguishing those \"que los deben pagar con arreglo á el Arancel\" from \"los particulares Tributarios, y los miserables ó pobres, aunque sean Caziques\", from whom nothing is to be taken, with penalties applied to feeding Indian prisoners in the jails of both parcialidades; the two Solicitadores de Indios to sit at separate benches in the corridor by the court; unrepresented Indians to be allotted alternately between them \"sin excusa ni pretexto alguno\"; unsigned papers to be traced to the intruder who wrote them; office hours from eight in the morning and half past three in the afternoon; two Abogados de Indios, one civil and one criminal, in attendance from eleven to twelve on every audiencia day, with the Intérprete general and Ministro Executor; the governors of the parcialidades of San Juan and Santiago to appear at the same hour to account for the previous day's arrests so that liberty or continued detention could be settled \"sin retardacion\"; and, because \"la ignorancia, ineptitud é impericia el origen y causa de la mala direccion de los negocios\", no man to hold the office of Solicitador without prior examination before the Real Acuerdo. The footnote to PA201 records the superior decree of 4 September 1787 declaring that Indians must not be deprived of the liberty of conferring their powers on persons of their own confidence in the foráneo jurisdictions. Reopened 2026-08-16 and PA28 read as a page scan that day: the real orden copied verbatim, addressed to viceroy Bucareli and dated \"El Pardo á 18 de Marzo de 1778\" over the signature of \"Joseph de Galvez\", on the disorders of drunkenness in the pulquerías of the capital having reached the King's notice, ordering the alcaldes de corte and ordinarios to live in their quarters and visit the pulquerías, and directing a junta of the archbishop, the regente, the senior fiscal and the superintendent of the customs to examine \"si convendria ponerlas en administracion, como el Pulque, que es un Ramo estancado, á efecto de que manejandose de cuenta de la Real Hacienda, se consiga extinguir ó minorar quanto se pueda los indicados escándalos é inconvenientes\"; with the narrative following it that the order lapsed on Bucareli's death and was taken up in the establishment of quarteles and alcaldes de barrio." }, { "id": "herrera-decadas-t1-1728", "title": "Historia general de las Indias Ocidentales, ò de los hechos de los Castellanos en las Islas y Tierra firme del Mar Oceano — Tomo Primero, que contiene las Decadas Primera y Segunda", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=i1TSEt7gjjgC&pg=PA185", "publisher": "Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas, Coronista Mayor de su Magestad de las Indias y de Castilla; first published Madrid, 1601-1615. This copy: En Amberes, por Juan Bautista Verdussen, Mercader de Libros, M.DCC.XXVIII (Antwerp, 1728)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The crown's official chronicle of the Indies, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Registered at secondary and not primary for two reasons stated on the page images themselves: Herrera was not a witness to the events of 1511-1513 and wrote as royal chronicler some ninety years later from the archives he was given, and the copy opened is the Antwerp 1728 reprint, whose engraved title page (PP5) reads \"HISTORIA GENERAL DE LAS INDIAS OCIDENTALES … ESCRITA POR ANTONIO DE HERRERA CORONISTA MAYOR DE SU MAGESTAD DE LAS INDIAS Y DE CASTILLA. EN OCHO DECADAS … TOMO PRIMERO, QUE CONTIENE LAS DECADAS PRIMERA Y SEGUNDA. Nueva Impression enriquecida con lindas Figuras y Retratos. EN AMBERES, Por JUAN BAUTISTA VERDUSSEN, Mercader de Libros. M.DCC.XXVIII\". Pages read 2026-08-09, all in Decada I: PA185, running head \"Decada I. Libro VIII\", marginal year 1511, capitulo XI \"De un sermon que predicó en santo Domingo fray Antonio Montesino, y lo que del resultó\"; PA186, the second sermon, the convent's collective backing through the vicar fray Pedro de Cordova, the decision to send Montesino to Castile, his audience with the King, and capitulo XII on the junta of letrados and theologians with its members named; PA187, the procuradores of the islands asking that the Indians be granted in perpetuity, and the clause of Isabel the Catholic's testament quoted at length; PA188 and PA189, the war in San Juan, read to fix the chapter boundaries; PA213 and PA214, Darien and the search for the strait, read to establish that the ordinances are not narrated earlier under 1512; PA215, running head \"Decada I. Libro IX\", marginal year 1513, capitulo XIV \"De otra instancia de los frayles Dominicos, sobre el particular de los Indios, y lo que resultó\", with the crown's answer to the Dominicans and the despatch of ordinances \"en Valladolid, que contenían treynta y dos capitulos\"; PA216, the rest of the ordinance clauses and the repartimientos taken by the King's privados immediately afterwards." }, { "id": "juan-ulloa-noticias-secretas-1826", "title": "Noticias secretas de America, sobre el estado naval, militar, y politico de los reynos del Perú y provincias de Quito, costas de Nueva Granada y Chile — Parte I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=nVtKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA231", "publisher": "Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa, Tenientes Generales de la Real Armada; presented in secret to Ferdinand VI. First printing: Londres, en la Imprenta de R. Taylor, 1826, edited by David Barry", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The report itself, in its first printing, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set below the tier because the printing is an 1826 London edition prepared by an interested editor and no manuscript is available in this container to collate it against. Pages read 2026-08-09: PP11, the title page, which names the Marques de la Ensenada's instructions, the secret presentation to Ferdinand VI, the two authors as lieutenant generals of the Royal Navy and members of the Royal Society of London and of the academies of Paris, Berlin and Stockholm, and David Barry as the man who brought it to light, \"En dos partes. Parte I. LONDRES: en la imprenta de R. Taylor. 1826\"; PA231, the opening of the account of the corregidores, the two classes of corregimiento and the sentence that the tyranny the Indians suffer is born of the insatiable hunger for riches of those who go out to govern them; PA240, the mechanics of the repartimiento de mercancias and the authors' verdict on it; PA267, the mita, what the laws require of it and the note that the requirement is no longer kept; PA275, the obrajes and the diet and dwelling of an Indian labourer, with the observation that ministers of the crown had understood the problem and issued the most serious provisions reason dictated to them; PA294, the heading of capitulo tercero on the dispossession of Indian lands and the protectores fiscales, and the passage distinguishing the tribute owed to the crown from everything else levied on the Indians. Pages added 2026-08-09 for the juicio-de-residencia object: PA254, PA255, PA256 and PA257, the account of how the residencias of the corregidores were provided, priced and concluded, including the statement that the value of each corregimiento's residencia was public knowledge, the four bags of a thousand pesos kept under the bed by the governors of Valdivia and passed to each successor, and what was done to Indians who came forward to depose against an outgoing corregidor. Pages read afresh 2026-08-16 for the obrajes-de-las-indias object: PA240 and PA241 (the mechanics of the repartimiento de mercancías, including the authors' defence of its original purpose in terms of shaking off \"la pereza\" and \"la ociosidad tan connatural á sus genios\", and their verdict that as practised it deserves no other name than \"una tiranía la mas horrible que se pudiera inventar\"); PA275 (the diet and hut of an Indian labourer, and the opening of the account of the obrajes as the class of estate \"donde al parecer se refunden todas las plagas de la miseria\", with the statement that ministers of His Majesty had understood the abuse and given the most serious provisions reason dictated, \"pero la lástima ha sido, que en aquellos paises nunca se observan las disposiciones del gobierno\"); and PA276 (the obraje as a galley that never reaches port, the door closed by the master at dawn leaving the workers \"encarcelados\", the midday ration brought in by the women, the flogging counted in hundreds and the cormas or cepos)." }, { "id": "barry-1826-prologo-noticias-secretas", "title": "Prologo to Noticias secretas de America", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=nVtKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1", "publisher": "David Barry; Londres, en la Imprenta de R. Taylor, 1826", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The editor's own preface, registered separately from the report it introduces so that editorial framing cannot borrow the document's tier. Barry published the report in London in 1826, and his purpose is printed on the title page: the text is brought out \"para el verdadero conocimiento del gobierno de los españoles en la America meridional\". Read 2026-08-09 at PR1, which opens by calling the discovery of America the most important event in the history of the human race and names Spain as the nation to whom that discovery fell, with the Catholic Monarchs described as powerful, triumphant, active and ambitious. Reliability is low because the editor is an interested party writing at the close of the Spanish American wars of independence." }, { "id": "santo-tomas-grammatica-1560", "title": "Grammatica, o arte de la lengua general de los Indios de los Reynos del Peru", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=1py78ptA7AkC&pg=PP1", "publisher": "Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás, O.P.; impresso en Valladolid por Francisco Fernandez de Cordoua, impressor de la M.R., acabose diez dias del mes de Henero, año de 1560", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The 1560 Valladolid first printing, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set below the tier because the author is an interested party: he is arguing a case at court against the encomenderos of Peru and dedicating the argument to the king who can decide it. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09. PP1, the title page, with the royal arms and the imprint \"Impresso en Valladolid, por Francisco Fernandez de Cordoua, Impressor de la M.R. CON PRIVILEGIO\". PP4, the \"Suma del privilegio\", granting ten years in which no one in these kingdoms or in the Indies of the Mar Occeano may print the Arte or the Vocabulario without the author's express licence. PP5, the opening of the \"Prologo a la S.M. del Rey nuestro Señor Don Philippe\". PP6, the statement that in fifteen continuous years in the kingdoms of Peru he had come to know the general language of them. PP7, the account of friars who did not attempt the work for the difficulty of learning the language, and of the Consejo Real de Indias which examined the book and ordered it printed. PP11, the declaration of the author's principal purpose. PP12, the argument that the language is regulated under the rules and precepts of Latin and cannot be called barbarous. PP13, the inference from language to the capacity of its speakers, the extent of the tongue over the dominion of \"aquel gran señor llamado Guaynacapa\", and the charge that those who tell the king otherwise mean to deceive him out of private interest. PP14, the close of the prologue, asking that they be treated as vassals capable of the same treatment as the rest, with the warning of depopulation and the description of them as weaker and newer in the king's service. PA1, \"Comiença el arte de la lengua general del Peru, llamada, Quichua\", and the first chapter on orthography, which records that they had no letters or characters and used instead a manner of counts and signs. PA95 and PT2, the closing \"Platica para todos los Indios\", printed with an interlinear Spanish gloss above the Quechua. PT3, the colophon dating the finished printing to ten days of January 1560, with the errata and the printer's device." }, { "id": "acosta-historia-natural-moral-1590", "title": "Historia natural y moral de las Indias, en que se tratan las cosas notables del cielo, y elementos, metales, plantas, y animales dellas: y los ritos, y ceremonias, leyes, y gouierno, y guerras de los Indios", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=26zAd4TrWXsC&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Padre Joseph de Acosta, S.J.; impresso en Seuilla en casa de Iuan de Leon, año de 1590", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The Seville 1590 first edition, the copy stamped as belonging to the library of the Colegio de la Compañia de Jesus de Sevilla, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set below the tier because the author writes as a Jesuit provincial defending the mission he served in and reports much of the Peruvian material at second hand from informants he names only in passing. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09. PA1, the title page with the imprint and the dedication to the Infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia. PA69 to PA71, the argument from the distribution of wild animals to the conclusion that the two land masses join or nearly join somewhere unexplored, with the author's own words \"no está del todo diviso y apartado del otro orbe\" and \"la una tierra y la otra en alguna parte se juntan y continúan\". PA81, the summary that the human lineage came over little by little, helped by the continuity or nearness of the lands and at times by some navigation, together with the author's ranking of the first arrivals as savage men and hunters rather than people of republic and polity. PA142 to PA144, the account of the crossing of Pariacaca: the symptoms he suffered and saw, the fourteen or fifteen companions left exhausted, the men who asked to confess believing they would die, the recovery on descending, the observation that beasts suffer it too, and the explanation that the element of air there is so thin and delicate that it is not proportioned to human breathing. PA147 and PA152, the geography of the two oceans and the reports of a strait, including the viceroy Martín Enríquez's examination of the Portuguese pilot. PA411, the account of the quipus of knotted cords and of the counting boards of pebbles, with the confession of a whole life read off a bundle of threads and the author's own tests of them.\nPages added 2026-08-16: PA240, wheat sprouting but ripening unevenly in the Barlovento islands so that flour must be shipped from New Spain, Spain or the Canaries, and the opposite failure above the Collao where cold and drought allow neither wheat nor maize, \"en cuyo lugar vsan los Indios otro genero de rayzes que llaman Papas\"; PA241, the drying and breaking that make \"chuño, que se conserua assi muchos dias, y les sirue de pan\", the sentence \"es en aquel Reyno gran contratació la deste chuño para las minas de Potosí\", the stew called Locro, and the admission that in many years the crop is blighted and frosted in the ground; PA207, a slope at Potosí covered with trees \"que llaman Quinua\" - the queñua tree, not the grain, recorded here because a word search for the crop lands on it.\nPages added 2026-08-16 (second batch of the day): PA198, metals born in sterile lands and the sentence that all the wealth come to Spain since the discovery \"ha sido sacada de semejantes lugares asperos, trabajosos, dessabridos, esteriles: mas el gusto del dinero los haze suaues, y abundates, y muy poblados\"; PA229, the close of the amalgamation chapter with the silver \"que jamas baxa de dos mil y trezientos y ochenta de ley\", the \"tormentos y (por dezirlo assi) martirios\" the metal passes and the sevenfold purification, then the heading of libro IV capitulo 13, \"De los ingenios para moler metales, y del Ensaye de la Plata\"; PA230, the horse and water mills, the seven gated lagoons \"de cotorno como a mil y setecientas varas, y de hondo tres estados\", the six, twelve and fourteen stamps, the mortars fed day and night, the count of forty-eight water ingenios on the ribera, four at Tanaconuno, twenty-two at Tarapaya and thirty horse ingenios in Potosi, the verdict \"tanta ha sido la diligencia e industria de sacar plata\", and the assay by the King's ensayadores." }, { "id": "leon-pinelo-epitome-1629", "title": "Epitome de la Biblioteca Oriental i Occidental, Nautica i Geografica", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=rYdTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Licenciado Antonio de León Pinelo, relator del Supremo i Real Consejo de las Indias; en Madrid, por Iuan Gonzalez, año de M.DC.XXIX", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The Madrid 1629 first edition, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set below the tier because the compiler was an officer of the Council of the Indies cataloguing the literature of the empire he served, and because he says himself that entries may be missing and invites corrections. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09. PP5, the engraved title page, with the allegorical figures India and Iberica, Geographia and Navigatio, the shelf of titles, the author's office as relator of the Supremo i Real Consejo de las Indias, and the imprint \"En Madrid, Por Iuan Gonzalez. Año de M.DC.XXIX\". PP7, the \"Suma del privilegio\" dated at Madrid 26 September 1629, the tassa of 5 November 1629 at four maravedis the sheet, and the errata signed by El Lic. Murcia de la Llana on 4 November 1629. PP25, the close of the prologue: the alphabetical catalogue of names, the remark that the languages the authors wrote in are many and that a table of them was therefore necessary, and the open request that anyone, even from the most remote part of the Indies, send word of an author or book he has missed. PP80, a page of the catalogue arranged by language, where Castellana, Italiana, Francesa, Latina, Griega, Alemana, Inglesa, Catalana and Quichua stand as columns of the same table. PA105, PA106 and PA109, pages of the section on the languages of the Indies, listing artes, vocabularios, doctrinas, confesionarios and sermon books in Mexicana, Misteca, Zapoteca, Mije, Chochona, Tarasca, Otomi, Mame, Chiapa, Zoque, Celdales, Cinacanteca, Quichua and Aymara, and carrying the entry \"F. Domingo de S. Tomas, Dominico. Gramatica o Arte de la lengua general del Perù. imp. 1560. 8.\"" }, { "id": "monardes-historia-medicinal-1580", "title": "Primera y segunda y tercera partes dela Historia Medicinal: delas cosas que se traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales, que siruen en Medicina", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=eAtm3cE1smAC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Doctor Nicolás Monardes, médico de Sevilla; con licencia y preuilegio de su Magestad, en Seuilla, en casa de Fernando Diaz, 1580", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The Seville 1580 printing of the collected three parts, read as page scans on 2026-08-09; the copy carries the stamps of the Biblioteca Vittorio Emanuele in Rome. Reliability is set well below the tier for a reason the book itself supplies: the author never crossed the Atlantic, states that his knowledge comes from interrogating in Seville the men who brought the drugs home, and was writing about commodities in whose trade the physicians and merchants of that city had a direct interest; the therapeutic claims are his own and many are wrong. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09. PP1, the binding. PP5, the title page, with the list of the parts and appended treatises, the note that the third part and the Dialogo del Hierro are new to this impression, and the imprint \"En Seuilla En casa de Fernando Diaz 1580\". PP7, the Cedula Real of Philip II reciting the author's petition that his earlier licence had expired, that the labour and expense had been much and the profit little, and granting licence to reprint with the price to be set by the Council. PA1, the opening of the first part, with the 1492 voyage and the abundance of the Indies. PA2, the statement of purpose and of method: Seville as \"puerto y escala de todas las Indias Occidentales\", forty years of practice in the city, information taken from those who brought the things from those parts, and the claim to be the first to write of them so that others may add. PA10, the guayacan chapter and the account of the Indian physician who gave the remedy to his Spanish master. PA11, the naming of the disease as \"Sarampion de las Indias\", the disputes of the great physicians over its cause, and the Indian name of the guayacan. PA23-IA1, the author's own initial refusal of the mechoacán root and the case that changed his mind. PA24, the scale of the mechoacán trade, the druggist's ten quintales, and the passage beginning \"Y cierto en esto somos dignos de muy grande reprehension\". PA32, the opening of the tobacco chapter, with the Spaniards \"enseñados por los Indios\" and the Indian name Picielt against the imposed name Tabaco. PA37-IA1, tobacco taken to remove fatigue and the comparison with the bague of the East Indies. PA42, the sassafras chapter, the Indian name Pauame, the French naming, and the absence of fixed dose. PA94, coca taken with tobacco, the coloured earths of Peru and the mercury shipped to New Spain. Reopened and read again as page scans on 2026-08-15 for the American materia medica objects. Pages opened that day: PA14-IA1, the opening of the chapter \"De la çarçaparrilla\", with its arrival in Seville some twenty years earlier, the statement that it was first brought from New Spain \"porque la vsauan los Indios por gran medicina\", and the description of the roots \"largas como vna vara, y mas\"; PA15-IA1, the older three-day regimen on the pressed mucilage which he says cured \"mejor que sanan agora\", and the method then in use — two ounces of root steeped twenty-four hours in three azumbres of water and boiled down to one, ten ounces in the morning and two hours of sweating; PA16, the ordinary order of fifteen days with nine in bed, the purges at fifteen and thirty days, the further forty days without wine \"y guardandose de muger\", and the author's own syrup of sarsaparilla used twenty-six years \"para enfermedades de Bubas\", first made for Pantaleón de Negro, Genoese; PA73, the Guayaquil cure — the mucilage of the bark, the sweat that \"corre el sudor por la cama\", the fowl, the eight or nine days, the fifty thatched houses, and the warning that a weak patient cannot bear the sweat \"sin mucho riesgo de su persona\"; PA22, the close of the pinipinichi chapter (\"violentas y de gran furia\" purges abandoned since the Mechoacán came) and the opening of \"Del Mechoacan\", with the root discovered some thirty years before and the province Cortés conquered in 1524; PA22-IA1, the province described as a place the neighbouring peoples came to for healing \"en tiempo delos Indios\", its chief town \"Chincicila\", the Franciscan monastery, the sick Guardián and his friend \"Caçoncin Cacique\"; PA23, the Indian physician's powders taken in wine, the cure of the friars and Spaniards, the Provincial's distribution of the root, and the displacement of the rhubarb of Barbary by the \"Ruybarbo de las Indias\"; and PA24 again, read for the druggist's ten quintales, the villages where \"no han menester Medico\", the roots bought dried from the Indians of Michoacán and shipped as merchandise, and the reproach that nobody investigates what is sold in the tianguis. Reopened once more on 2026-08-16 for the sunflower. Page opened that day: PA89-IA1, carrying the close of the granadilla chapter and, beneath it, the whole short chapter \"DE LA YERVA DEL SOL\" — the seed still being sent to him although \"aura algunos años que la tenemos aca\", the plant seen \"de dos lanças en alto\", the flower \"mayor que vn gran plato\" and of diverse colours, the need to stake it \"sino estara siempre cayda\", the seed \"como pepitas de melon algo mayores\", the turning toward the sun with the author's own deflation of the marvel (\"lo qual hazen otras muchas flores y yeruas\"), and the closing verdict that it \"parece muy bien en los jardines\". The preceding page was read as well so that the chapter boundary is certain and the granadilla material is not mistaken for the sunflower's." }, { "id": "palafox-virtudes-del-indio", "title": "Virtudes del Indio", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=DtlQAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Juan de Palafox y Mendoza, obispo de la Puebla de los Ángeles; printing not identified — see notes", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "A seventeenth-century printing of Palafox's memorial to the king, read as page scans on 2026-08-09 in the digitisation of a copy whose shelfmark label reads \"Res. 4 Am. A 266\". The scan carries NO title page and no imprint: it runs from the binding to a blank leaf and then straight into the text at \"SEÑOR\", so the place, printer and year of this printing are not asserted anywhere in this instance, and the work is identified from its running head, \"Virtudes\" verso and \"Del Indio\" recto, and from the author's naming of his own offices on the second page. Reliability is set below the tier because the document is an advocate's brief, not a survey: Palafox is arguing a case to the monarch who can decide it, defending a population and at the same time his own record as visitador general in New Spain. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09. PP1, the binding with the shelfmark label. PP3, a blank leaf. PA1, the opening address, the claim that few ministers went to or returned from New Spain more obliged to the protection of the Indians, and the statement that in the diocese of los Ángeles the number of Indians reaches nearly a quarter of the whole district of the Real Audiencia de México. PA2, the list of the author's offices, beginning \"Fiscal de Indias mas ha de veinte años, cuyo oficio principal, es ser Protector de los Indios\". PA24, the account of why the conquest succeeded — the prophecy, the horses, the arquebuses, the divisions among the Indians and the Tlaxcaltecas whom Cortés used — closing on the valour of the naturales. PA56, the ledger of what the Indians sustain: divine worship, the offerings, the fees of the curas and doctrineros, the hens, fruit, eggs and fish carried to every superior, and the poor Indian who walks fifty leagues loaded. PA72, the Tarascan who learned organ-building by watching for six days and went home to build organs. PA90, the comparison of drunkenness as a \"vicio nacional\" with the national vices of European kingdoms. PA91, the statement that the thieves among them are those raised among non-Indians, and that greed has laid its tribute on pulque, vingui and tepache so that \"la beuida del Indio, es la comida del Iuez\". PA92, the passage crediting the Crown with the ending of idolatry and of the eating of human flesh, and in the same breath demanding that the inferior ministers be made to end the vice they profit from." }, { "id": "taagepera-1997", "title": "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia", "url": "https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807", "publisher": "International Studies Quarterly 41(3):475-504, 1997; open access via eScholarship (UC Irvine)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "license": "CC-BY-4.0", "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Rein Taagepera. Full 11-page PDF read 2026-08-09. Atlas-based area curves for large polities, 1600-1995. Verified on the page: polities are operationally \"the different colored patches in historical atlases\" (p. 477), dry-land base 133 Mm2 excluding Antarctica (p. 480), Britain surpassed the Mongol empire \"35 Mm2 versus 24\" while Russia never did, and \"prior to the one century of British predominance, the Spanish empire was for two centuries almost as large as the Russian\" (p. 482); Fig. 3 shows Spain peaking at 13-14 Mm2 around 1780. Cartographic convention, not effective control." }, { "id": "turchin-adams-hall-2006", "title": "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States", "url": "https://peterturchin.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf", "publisher": "Journal of World-Systems Research XII(2):219-229, December 2006", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Turchin, Adams and Hall. Read 2026-08-09. Compiles all large historical empires with peak territory exceeding 1 Mm2 (62 cases), based on the Taagepera compilations checked against major historical atlases; footnote 1 states the maritime empires of the European Great Powers were EXCLUDED as non-contiguous. Used for homogeneous peak-area figures and for the caveat that such lists are atlas reconstructions." }, { "id": "census-canada-1921-empire", "title": "Area and Population of the British Empire, by Countries, 1901, 1911 and 1921 (Census of Canada 1921, table 16, p. 117)", "url": "https://www66.statcan.gc.ca/eng/1921/192101530117_p.%20117.pdf", "publisher": "Dominion Bureau of Statistics, Canada; Statistics Canada digitization", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Period imperial statistics, page image read 2026-08-09. Grand total 13,419,046 square miles and 441,822,232 inhabitants at the 1921 census round, with per-territory rows. The table's own footnotes mark many populations as estimates (Nigeria, New Guinea, Aden and others). Primary for what the empire recorded about itself at its territorial peak - not a measure of effective administration." }, { "id": "smm-empire-benchmark-2026", "title": "Benchmark comparado de imperios - ejecucion v1.1 (working study)", "publisher": "Santi (santismm), unpublished working spreadsheets, July-August 2026; private files, available on request", "tier": "derived", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Read in full 2026-08-09 (Google Sheets). Original comparative-empires framework: 61 operational metrics in 11 dimensions, territorial-status codes T0-T6, administrative reach E0-E3, measurement confidence A-D/ND, causal confidence 0-3, universal rights anchors 0-5; hard rules (absence is never zero, during is not because-of, persistence is not benefit, achievement never compensates harm, no single moral ranking); a territorial audit (R-01..R-08) of popular size claims; 12 pilot empires with periodization and 24 first-phase observations. Registered derived because its loaded comparative cells rest on tertiary references (encyclopaedias, OWID, World Bank); the framework and audit are original analysis." }, { "id": "smm-iberian-1580-1640", "title": "Imperios ibericos 1580-1640 - juridical vs effective area and population under the crowns (working dataset)", "publisher": "Santi (santismm), unpublished working spreadsheet, July 2026; private file, available on request", "tier": "derived", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Read in full 2026-08-09. Per-modern-country rows for the Spanish crown (35 countries) and the Portuguese crown (25) at base year 1600, and for the British Empire around 1921 (70), each with juridical area, effective-area low/central/high, population under the crown as an interval, control type and a confidence grade. A first-order analytical synthesis over historical cartography and demographic reconstructions; its own methodology note says low-confidence cells are for sensitivity and benchmarking only, never point data." }, { "id": "slavevoyages-estimates", "title": "Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade - Estimates (SlaveVoyages database)", "url": "https://www.slavevoyages.org/assessment/estimates", "publisher": "SlaveVoyages Consortium, hosted at Rice University", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Interactive estimates tables queried and read in a live browser session on 2026-08-09, full extent 1501-1866, all seven national carriers and all regions selected. Verified on screen: embarked total 12,521,354 and disembarked total 10,702,644; by flag (embarked) Portugal/Brazil 5,848,274, Great Britain 3,259,427, France 1,381,413, Spain/Uruguay 1,061,529, Netherlands 554,336, U.S.A. 305,334, Denmark/Baltic 111,041; by broad disembarkation region Brazil 4,864,377, British Caribbean 2,318,266, Spanish Americas 1,292,877, French Caribbean 1,120,226, Mainland North America 388,744; Spanish Americas arrivals by period include 588,559 in 1801-1850 and 163,949 in 1851-1866. Scholarly reconstruction with imputation - estimates, not counts." }, { "id": "valades-rhetorica-christiana", "title": "Rhetorica Christiana", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=aqM9AAAAcAAJ&pg=PP3", "publisher": "Frater Didacus Valades, ordinis Minorum Regularis obseruantiae; printing not identified — see notes", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "A sixteenth-century printing of Valadés's rhetoric, read as page scans on 2026-08-09 in the digitisation of a Bayerische Staatsbibliothek copy whose stamp appears on PP2. The scan carries NO printed title page: Google has substituted a cover of its own making, built from the book's own plate of the internal senses, and no leaf in the front matter carries an imprint, so the place, printer and year of this printing are not asserted anywhere in this instance. The work is identified from its running head, \"Rhetorica\" verso and \"Christiana\" recto, from the heading of the commendatory poems, and from the dedication. Reliability is set below the tier because the book is an apologia: it argues, before the pope and a Roman readership, that the Franciscan mission in New Spain succeeded and that its methods deserve the credit, and its author is a member of that mission. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09. PP2, the commendatory poems headed \"IN RHETORICAM CHRISTIANAM ET TABVLAS INDICAS\", by Iulius Roscius Hortinus and Camillus Sabellius Panicalensis, closing on \"Hic est de nostris, Didacus Valadesus Iberus, Ordinis & gentis gloria magna suae\", with the Munich library stamp. PP3, the dedication \"SANCTISSIMO D. N. GREGORIO XIII. PONT. OPT. MAX. F. Didacus Valades, ordinis Minorum Regularis obseruantiae sacrosanctos pedes osculatur\". PA90, the second kind of artificial memory, where the writing of \"Indi nostri occidentales\" is entered as a working memory system. PA95, the friars preaching to the Indians with painted hangings carrying the Creed, the Decalogue, the deadly sins, the works of mercy and the sacraments; the Franciscan claim to priority in the method; the disclaimer about the inventors of engraving; and the Indians confessing from a picture with pebbles to count repetitions. PA100, the rules for forming letter images, the note that other images \"Indorum\" have been added to serve for the same letters, and the statement that the declaration of the Indian calendar is omitted because it would have had to be set down in their language. PA100-IA1 and PA100-IA5, two of the engraved alphabet plates — the first of European objects shaped as letters, the second of twenty-one heart-shaped cartouches holding Mesoamerican figures keyed to the letters of the Latin alphabet. PA171, the testimony of indigenous elders about the temple at Tetzcuctzingo and the seventy-six thousand captives of the Tlaxcala war said to have been sacrificed at one solemn sacrifice, followed by the friars' learning of the languages, \"praecipuè uerò Mexicanam, quae reliquis est politior\", and the composition of books and dictionaries in them. PA184, the chapter headed \"Defensio synceri Indorum Christianismi contra inconsideratam accusationem praedictam\", with the accusations recited and the author's own credentials: about thirty years among them and more than twenty-two preaching and confessing in three of their languages, Mexicano, Tarasco and Otomí. PA213, the demand to know who else drew the Indians out of their old life, the concord of the three orders held up as an example to Indians and Spaniards alike, and the memorial schedules by which confession was organised. PA380, a page of the index, carrying entries such as \"Catechistica doctrina qualiter Indis inculcetur\" and \"Confessionum modus apud Indos\"." }, { "id": "sandoval-naturaleza-policia-1627", "title": "Naturaleza, policia sagrada i profana, costumbres i ritos, disciplina i catechismo evangelico de todos Etiopes", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=xBhlAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP9", "publisher": "El P. Alonso de Sandoval, de la Compañia de Jesus, rector del Collegio de Cartagena de las Indias; en Sevilla, por Francisco de Lira, impresor, anno M.DC.XXVII", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The Seville 1627 first edition, read as page scans on 2026-08-09 in the digitisation of a British Museum copy, whose stamp appears on the title-page verso. Reliability is set below the tier for reasons the book supplies itself: much of what it reports about the Guinea coast and the crossing is second-hand, attributed to men who told the author, and the work is written by the rector of the Jesuit college at Cartagena to recruit his own order to a ministry, so the case is argued rather than surveyed. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09. PP9, the engraved title page with the full title, the author \"natural de Toledo, de la Compañia de Jesus, rector del Collegio de Cartagena de las Indias\", the imprint \"EN SEVILLA POR FRANCISCO DE LIRA, IMPRESOR, ANNO M.DC.XXVII\", and the two mottoes from Psalm 67 and Esther 1. PP10, the title-page verso carrying the MVSEVM BRITANNICVM stamp. PA10, the chapter \"De la naturaleza de los Etiopes, que comunmente llamamos negros\", with the etymologies and the naming of the nations Guineos, Caravalies, Ardas, Lucumies, Congos, Angolas, Cafres and Macuas. PA65-IA1, the ports the ships come from, the refusal to enter \"la justificacion intrinseca de la cosa\" for cargoes shipped by way of Cape Verde, the captain of an armazón made to restore a great fortune after certifying that he had burdened his conscience on every voyage, and the African king who held whole lineages for sale. PA66-IA1, the letter of the Jesuit rector at Luanda: the good-faith argument that buyers may buy without scruple, the instruction not to ask the captives whether they were lawfully taken, the ten or twelve thousand a year leaving that port, and the calculation that a few wrongly taken should not stop the many. PA67 and PA67-IA1, the ship lost on the Negrillos shoal within sight of Cartagena with thirty surviving of nine hundred, the author's report that the same rector had publicly preached against the injustice of the captivity and had many freed, his own astonishment at the contradiction, and the account of the pumberos and cargadores who went eighty leagues inland. PA69, the shipowners who told him their consciences were not quiet. PA72, the passage from Ambrose that the labourer must not look at whether a man is white or black, free or slave; the armazón of three to six hundred and more; the twelve or fourteen such ships entering Cartagena in an ordinary year; and the aside \"Cautivos estos negros con la justicia q Dios sabe\". PA72-IA1, the crossing: the long chains called corrientes, six by the neck and two by the feet, the closed hatches, one bowl of maize or millet meal every twenty-four hours, the fear of being made into oil or eaten, and the statement that a third die on a passage of more than two months. PA234, the opening of the chapter on the absolute necessity of interpreters, \"lenguas ladinas, y fieles\", and the note that the masters commonly kept none and would pay nothing to find them." }, { "id": "ovalle-historica-relacion-1648", "title": "Historica relacion del Reyno de Chile, y delas missiones, y ministerios que exercita en el la Compañia de Iesus", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=aJRbAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Alonso de Ovalle, de la Compañia de Iesus, natural de Santiago de Chile y su procurador a Roma; en Roma, por Francisco Cauallo, M.DC.XLVIII, con licencia de los superiores", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The Rome 1648 Spanish printing, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set below the tier for reasons the book supplies itself: the author is a Jesuit procurator sent to Europe to raise men and money for the Chilean mission, the work argues the merit of that mission and of his own order in it, and the author states that what he did not see himself he reports from what he heard or read in other authors. This volume has NO usable search layer - jscmd=SearchWithinVolume returns zero for every term tried, including terms visible on pages opened here - so it was navigated by page number from the prologue's own account of the eight books and from the advertencia listing the engravings. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09. PP1, the binding. PP5, the descriptive title leaf headed \"VARIAS, Y CVRIOSAS NOTICIAS DEL REINO DE CHILE\", which recites the scope down to \"la lastimosa perdida de siete Ciudades\" and the refounding of Valdivia, and announces that all of it is represented \"en varias imagenes, y en el Mapa de Chile\". PP7, the title page proper, with the author \"Natural de Santiago de Chile, y su Procurador a ROMA\" and the imprint \"EN ROMA, por Francisco Cauallo. M.DC.XLVIII\". PP9 and PP11, the \"PROLOGO AL LETOR\": the author's finding that Europe knew so little of Chile \"que en muchas partes ni aun sabian su nombre\", the plan of the eight books including the sixth on the war occasioned by \"la valerosa resistencia que han hecho los Araucanos alos Españoles\" and the seventh on Luis de Valdivia's means of peace, the five cautions on method, the remark that foreigners are \"mas libres de sospecha\" in matters of praise, and the closing image of the powerful and undaunted Araucanian brought to bend the knee. PP13, the advertencia to the binder listing the plates by page, including the twenty-five governors of Chile from Pedro de Valdivia to Martín de Mujica set three abreast on the great map, and the map of the kingdom itself. PA1, the opening of Libro Primero, \"Del Sitio, Clima, y Division del Reyno de Chile\", with the latitudes, the jurisdiction running to the strait of Magellan, and the discussion of Ortelius on whether Chile continued to New Guinea. PA85, PA88 and PA92, from the book on the inhabitants, running head \"BREVE RELACION\" on the verso and \"DEL REYNO DE CHILE\" on the recto: the harangue on dying for \"la estimada libertad dela patria\", the account of their warlike spirit as choleric, impatient, arrogant and \"notablemente crueles\" in vengeance, the physical description and horsemanship, the talega of maize meal with salt and ají and the drinks made from it called ulpo and rupu, the hundred to two hundred thousand found by the Spaniards at their entry, the dispersed settlement because anything smacking of subjection did not please them, the refusal of Spanish dress and cosmetics even by women raised among Spaniards, the argument that simple dress frees men from crafts and leaves more soldiers, the statement that they had no notice of the European arts \"pero aprendenlas facilmente, y con eminencia quando se las enseñan\", and the quipus described as \"sus libros de memoria, y quentas\". PA283 and PA286, from Libro VII: the ceremonies of peace with the caciques of Arauco, the cacique Utablame offering his branch of cinnamon in recognition of the king and the treating for the ransom of captives \"nuestros, y suios\", the chapter on the entry of Horacio Vecchi and Martín de Aranda to preach in the land of war, and their writing to Valdivia for licence to go further because the order he had given them did not allow it without new notice." }, { "id": "bertonio-vocabulario-aymara-1612", "title": "Vocabulario dela lengua Aymara. Primera parte, donde por abecedario se ponen en primer lugar los vocablos dela lengua Española para buscar los que les corresponden enla lengua Aymara", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=d4kAg_wOn4EC&pg=PP15", "publisher": "P. Ludovico Bertonio, de la Compañia de Iesus; impresso enla casa de la Compañia de Iesus de Iuli, pueblo enla prouincia de Chucuito, por Francisco del Canto, 1612 - read in the photolithographic facsimile of Julio Platzmann, Leipzig, B. G. Teubner, 1879", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-09. The digitisation is NOT of a 1612 copy: it is Julio Platzmann's \"Edicion facsimilaria\" (Leipzig, B. G. Teubner, 1879), whose own title leaf is at PP5 of this volume, and which reproduces the 1612 sheets photolithographically page for page, original title page and preliminaries included. The tier is set at primary because what is on the page is the 1612 setting of type reproduced, not an edited text; the facsimile status is stated in claim c1 of the object as well as here, and no claim rests on anything Platzmann added. Reliability is held below 1.0 because the author is a missionary arguing, in the prologue that supplies most of what is cited here, for more resources and more men for his own ministry. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09. PP5, the Platzmann facsimile title leaf, \"PARTE PRIMERA. Edicion facsimilaria. LEIPZIG B. G. TEUBNER 1879\". PP15, the reproduced 1612 title page, with the author given as \"el P. Ludouico Bertonio Italiano dela Compañia de Iesus enla Prouincia del Piru, delas Indias Occidentales, Natural de la Roca contrada dela Marca de Ancona\", the dedication to Don Fray Domingo Valderrama Centeno, \"Arçobispo, y primer Obispo dela Paz\", the imprint \"Impresso enla casa de la Compañia de Iesus de Iuli Pueblo enla Prouincia de Chucuito. Por Francisco del Canto. 1612\", and the line \"Esta tassado este Vocabulario a vn Real cada pliego\". PP18, the ERRATAS signed by Diego de Torres Rubio, who corrected the vocabulary, arte and phrasis by commission of \"el Doctor Fernando Arias de Vgarte, Oydor de esta Real Audiencia de los Reyes\", and the TASSA at a real the sheet given \"En los Reyes en 21 de Agosto de 1612\", recording that the vocabulary runs to a hundred and ten sheets and the arte to thirty. PP21, the Latin dedicatoria to Valderrama Centeno, with the argument that the bishop cannot address that flock unless he uses the words and locutions handed down in this lexicon. PP25, the prologue on Juli as the place where the author and many other fathers learned Aymara without studying any other language, on preaching to many thousands at Potosí where the mines drew a great concourse of Indians, on being understood by Aymara speakers of the provinces of the Canas, Canchis, Pacases, Carancas, Quillaguas and Charcas, on the choice of words neither too coarse nor too exquisite, and on the argument that Aymara is less difficult than Latin, Italian or Spanish because it has one declension and one conjugation and yields no barbarisms from genders or preterites. PP27, the passage comparing the whole nation to the man left wounded in the parable, the count of more than a thousand Aymara towns against barely twenty preachers who know the language well, the concession that they might be fifty, the inference from \"Fides ex auditu\" that the faith is therefore not sufficiently planted, and the sentence \"Confessemos pues que no tienen toda la culpa los indios si aprouechan tan poco en la doctrina euangelica, pues procede tambien del descuydo que nosotros tenemos en enseñarles\". PP29, the argument that priests who draw their stipend as labourers of the vineyard without working it will have to answer to its owner, and the appeal to the example of those who learned the languages of very barbarous nations. PA14, a page of the Spanish-to-Aymara vocabulary proper." }, { "id": "zorita-breve-y-sumaria-relacion-cdi-1864", "title": "Breve y sumaria relacion de los señores... de la Nueva España, por el Dr. Alonso de Zorita, in Coleccion de documentos ineditos relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y colonizacion de las posesiones españolas en America y Oceania, tomo II", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=esgTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Sacados del Real Archivo de Indias, bajo la direccion de D. Joaquin F. Pacheco y D. Francisco de Cardenas; y de D. Luis Torres de Mendoza. Madrid: Imprenta Española, Torija 14, 1864", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "A sixteenth-century memorial to Philip II, read as page scans of the 1864 editio princeps on 2026-08-09. Tiered primary because the pages carry the text of the document itself, but reliability is set well below the tier for two reasons the volume states on its own pages. First, the transmission: the editors' Advertencia at PA126 says the relacion was first copied from its original by Lorenzo Boturini, that further copies were made afterwards, and that the copy used for this publication was collated with the one in tomo XLI of the Muñoz collection - so this is a nineteenth-century transcription of a copy of a copy, and the editors add that they could not fix the date of composition beyond the second half of the sixteenth century. Second, the author: Zorita was a former oidor arguing a policy case to his king, an interested party by construction, and the text is a plea rather than a survey. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09. PP9, the title page of tomo II - Madrid, Imprenta Española, 1864, documents drawn in their greater part from the Real Archivo de Indias. PA1, the heading of the relacion, with its full title, its address to the C. R. M. of King Philip, and the author's style \"el Dr. Alonso de Zorita, oydor que fue de la Real Audiencia que reside en la muy insigne y gran ciudad de Mexico de la Nueva España\", followed by the editors' note that the relacion was first copied by Boturini. PA35, on how the señores naturales governed, the tributes gathered by ancient custom, and the religious who moved the caciques to declare their lordship and tributes so that something might be taken off what the subjects paid, the agreement put in writing and approved by letrados and by the viceroy. PA100, on tribute assessed on lands and on labour rather than on persons - the mayeques renting other men's land, the renteros hiring by the year, land whose rent met the needs of the republica and could not be alienated - and the sentence \"No se pagaba tributo por cabeza, ni tal se usó entre ellos\", with the remark that the recent count to distribute tribute by heads \"ha causado gran desasosiego y escándalo\". PA126, the closing page and the FINIS: households left pobrisimos and their children pauperrimos miserables by the tribute, the judgement that these are not people to bear so great a weight of it, the request that public works not be imposed on them if they are paid and continue contributing to the royal crown, and the report that for these reasons many had fled to the hills, leaving children and houses, \"y así los comen las fieras en los montes\"." }, { "id": "instruccion-y-memoria-1577", "title": "Real cedula de San Lorenzo el Real, 25 de mayo de 1577, y la Instruction y memoria de las relaciones que se han de hazer para la descripcion de las Indias, ediciones 1.a y 2.a", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=KZtDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA85", "publisher": "Text as printed in Relaciones geograficas de Indias: Peru, tomo I, ed. Marcos Jimenez de la Espada; Biblioteca de Autores Españoles 183, Madrid: Ediciones Atlas, 1965", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The text of the royal order and of the printed questionnaire it carried, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Tiered primary because these pages reproduce the documents rather than describe them; reliability is set below the tier because what is on the page is an editor's transcription, and the editor names his exemplar in a footnote - \"Tomada de la copia que consta al frente de la Rel. del Tocuyo (Venezuela)\" - rather than a surviving printed broadside photographed. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09. PA85, the close of the cedula, dated \"en Sant Lorenço el Real a veinte y cinco de Mayo de mill e quinientos e setenta e siete años. - Yo el Rey. - Por mandado de su magestad, Antonio de Eraso\", ordering that the description be made in each province, that governors, corregidores and alcaldes mayores be sent as many copies of the printed instructions as needed to distribute among the towns of Spaniards and of Indians in their districts, and that the completed relaciones be returned to the Council of the Indies; followed by the heading \"Instruction y memoria de las relaciones que se han de hazer para la descripcion de las Indias, que Su Magestad manda hazer, para el buen gouierno y ennoblescimiento dellas\" and the opening of the first edition. PA86, the second edition of the same instruction, the order that the answerer head the relacion with the day, month and year, the name of the person making it and of the governor who sent the instruction, that he answer each chapter by its number, pass over chapters that do not apply, and write \"breve y claramente, en todo, affirmando por cierto lo que lo fuere, y lo que no, poniendolo por dudoso\"; then the \"Memoria de las cosas a que se ha de responder\" with chapters 1 to 3. PA87, chapters 4 to 14, including 5 on how many Indians there are and whether more or fewer than at other times and the causes, whether they live in formed and permanent towns, \"el talle y suerte de sus entendimientos, inclinaciones, y manera de biuir\", and whether there are different languages; 6 on the elevation of the pole; 13 on what the name of the Indian town means in the language of the Indians and what language they speak; and 14 on whose vassals they were in the time of their gentility, the lordship held over them, what they paid in tribute, and their adorations and customs \"buenas, o malas\"; with the editor's footnote that all printed copies of the first edition of this Memoria, of 1577, carry a clause added by hand to chapter 14." }, { "id": "jimenez-espada-antecedentes-relaciones-geograficas", "title": "Antecedentes, and estudio preliminar, to Relaciones geograficas de Indias: Peru, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=KZtDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA52", "publisher": "Marcos Jimenez de la Espada, with a preliminary study by Jose Urbano Martinez Carreras; Biblioteca de Autores Españoles 183, Madrid: Ediciones Atlas, 1965", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The editorial apparatus of the standard edition - Jimenez de la Espada's own Antecedentes, quoting archival registers he cites by legajo, together with a modern preliminary study. Secondary because these pages are scholarship about the documents, not the documents; reliability high because the author edited the corpus and cites the Archivo de Indias directly, but not higher because the Antecedentes date from the 1880s and several of its judgements are the editor's own inference. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09. PR48, the preliminary study on the antecedents of the Relaciones and on the royal instructions that preceded them. PR51, that on 25 May 1577 Lopez de Velasco applied to the Indies the procedure followed for the Castilian relations since 1575, drafting an interrogatorio of 50 questions or chapters sent out with other scientific instructions, and that he served as cosmografo-cronista from 1571 to 1591; and that the aim was \"el perfecto conocimiento del gobierno en las tierras y gentes que habia de gobernar\", feeding the projected Libro de la descripcion de las Indias. PA24, the earlier attempts at a descripcion de la tierra under bishop-president Ramirez de Fuenleal, with his letters of 1531 and 1532. PA52, the ordinance of the Bosque de Segovia of 13 July 1573 requiring discoverers to report to the audiencias, Ovando's idea of uniforming the reports by means of a pauta or cuestionario, the note that the harvest was posthumous and came only in 1577, and Lopez de Velasco's appointment as cosmografo-cronista mayor de las Indias on 20 October 1571 after the aged Alonso de Santa Cruz was pensioned. PA53, that on 11 January 1577 Lopez de Velasco was given 400 ducados for making and ordering a Libro de geografia de las islas y provincias de las Indias; that he drafted the \"Instrucciones para la observacion de los eclipses de luna... y verificar por ellos las alturas y longitudes\", which began to circulate to the towns of the Indies on 25 May; and that the interrogatorio of 200 chapters was recast to 50 under the name Instruccion y Memoria and distributed on that same date together with the eclipse instructions, the two printed in identical type, case, ornamental initial and paper. PA54, which relaciones arrived and when - Santa Marta and Venezuela first, dated March and April 1578, Tocuyo January 1579, New Spain complying best, the latest from these countries 1584, Quito 1582, almost all of Peru proper 1586, nothing from Tucuman, Chile or the Rio de la Plata - the conclusion that the efficacy of the 1577 cedula \"fue remitiendo de Norte a Sur y se desvanecio hacia el estrecho de Magallanes\", the second printed edition of the Instruccion exhausted about 1584, and the eclipse instructions reprinted from 1577 as often as the years of the phenomenon required, of which the editor had seen two printings and had notice of a third. PA281, the register of petitions in the Council of the Indies for 18 February 1578, in which the cosmographer Juan Bautista Gesio asks to be given \"las observaciones de eclipses que han venido de la Nueva España y de otras partes, porque hace mucho al caso para las longitudes\", minuted by the Council \"Juntese con Juan de Velasco y vealo\", and asks in the same register for the relaciones and derroteros of the navigations of the South Sea, the Malucos and the Philippines." }, { "id": "montoya-conquista-espiritual-1639", "title": "Conquista espiritual hecha por los religiosos de la Compañia de Iesus, en las prouincias del Paraguay, Parana, Vruguay, y Tape", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ds3r9MCXtqcC&pg=PA49", "publisher": "Padre Antonio Ruiz de Montoya, de la Compañía de Jesús; en Madrid, en la imprenta del Reyno, año de 1639", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The Madrid 1639 first edition, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set well below the tier because the author is an interested party twice over: he was the Jesuit superior of the missions he describes, and he wrote the book at court while petitioning the Crown on their behalf, so the narrative is advocacy as well as testimony, and its frame is providential throughout. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09. PP5 and PP7, the preliminaries: the ten-year privilege to print, despatched in the office of Martin de Segura, escriuano de Camara, Madrid 5 June 1639, and the tassa of 11 July 1639 at five marauedis the pliego. PP9, the aprobacion of Doctor don Lorenço de Mendoça, prelate of Rio de Janeiro, who examined the book by order of the Real y Supremo Consejo and records that he had earlier examined by the same order \"los libros del Tesoro, Arte, Vocabulario, y Catecismo de la lengua Guarani del Paraguay, que hizo el Reuerendo Padre Antonio Ruiz de Motoya\". PA8 and PA9, the yerba trade and the labour on it: the ossuaries seen in the hills, loads of five and six arrobas carried ten, fifteen and twenty leagues and more with nothing given for sustenance, the doubled tribute of ten pesos discharged in two months of personal service, journeys of thirty, forty, fifty and up to a hundred and sixty leagues to the mita, and the encomendero of Guaira who took six months a year of every Indian he held without pay while others held them ten and twelve months. PA47 and PA48, paragraph XXXVII, the raid that destroyed the Spanish town of Villa Rica and the nine pueblos de indios in its jurisdiction. PA49, the flight from Guaira: seven hundred balsas and many loose canoes carrying more than twelve thousand souls, and the abandoned churches. PA50, the stockade the Spanish residents of Guaira built at the falls of the Parana to intercept the flotilla and seize its people. PA51, PA51-IA1 and PA52, paragraph XXXIX, the hunger, plague and drownings of the journey. PA96 and PA97, paragraph LXXIX, the letter of the bishop of Tucuman to the king. PA103, the closing Tabla, whose entries index the recurring argument against personal service and confirm the figure of seven hundred vessels and twelve thousand souls." }, { "id": "vinaza-lenguas-indigenas-1892", "title": "Bibliografía española de lenguas indígenas de América", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=a-AZAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA139", "publisher": "Cipriano Muñoz y Manzano, conde de la Viñaza; Madrid, Sucesores de Rivadeneyra, 1892", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The Madrid 1892 bibliography of Spanish work on the indigenous languages of the Americas, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. A descriptive bibliography: entries give the title transcribed line by line, format, collation, the dates of privileges, licences, tassas and approbations, the holding libraries, and quoted passages from prologues, with each entry's earlier bibliographical authorities listed beneath it. Its limitation is the ordinary one of the genre and is visible on the page: many entries rest on catalogues and on correspondents rather than on a copy the compiler handled, and some verdicts are asserted without the evidence for them. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09. PA94 and PA95, the Guarani corpus of Antonio Ruiz de Montoya: his own statement of the three volumes offered in print, entry 176 for the unpublished sermons in lengua tupi, entry 177 for the Arte y Bocabulario (Madrid, Iuan Sanchez, 1640) with its full collation and the dates of its privilege, licence, tassa and three approbations, entry 178 for the Catecismo (Madrid, Diego Diaz de la Carrera, 1640), and the quoted passages on the four pronunciations of the language, the marks assigned to them, the declension of nouns by particles and the division of the verbs. PA136 to PA140, the imprints of the Paraguay mission presses: entry 277, the Manuale of 1721 with the imprint \"Laureti typis P. P. Societatis Iesu\" and the manuscript note in the Madrid copy supposing it the first book from those presses; entry 278, the Vocabulario reprinted at Santa Maria la Mayor in 1722; entry 282, the Arte of Montoya with the scholia of Paulo Restivo, Santa Maria la Mayor 1724, with Restivo's prologue naming his authorities; entry 283, the Explicacion de el Catechismo of 1724 under the name of Nicolas Yapuguay; and entry 287, the Sermones y Exemplos of 1727 under the same name, with the compiler's flat verdict on its authorship. PA220 and PA221, the nineteenth-century reprints, including the four volumes Julio Platzmann published unaltered at Leipzig in 1876 and the fate of their stereotype plates." }, { "id": "barba-arte-de-los-metales-lima-1817", "title": "Arte de los metales, en que se enseña el verdadero beneficio de los de oro y plata por azogue; el modo de fundirlos todos, y como se han de refinar y apartar unos de otros", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=gDkwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "El licenciado Alvaro Alonso Barba, natural de la villa de Lepe, cura de la parroquia de San Bernardo en la Imperial villa de Potosi; reimpreso por el Real Tribunal de Mineria de esta capital de orden del Excmo. Sr. Virey, Lima, en la Imprenta de los Huerfanos, 1817. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Barba's treatise, written at Potosi and approved there in 1637, read as page scans on 2026-08-09 in the Lima 1817 reprint made by the Real Tribunal de Mineria of Peru at the viceroy's order. Reliability is set below the tier for three reasons the volume itself supplies: it is a reprint at almost two centuries' remove from the composition, not the Madrid 1640 sheets; its author is the claimant in a priority dispute he narrates in his own book; and the reprint carries at least one demonstrable compositor's error of date, printing \"El año de 1690\" for the year of a discovery whose approbation is dated 1637. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09: PP1, the binding; PP6 and PP7, the title page, with the added treatise of Alonso Carrillo y Laso on the ancient mines of Spain and the Lima 1817 imprint; PP9, the approbation of the deputies of the guild of azogueros of Potosi, dated 15 March 1637; PA1, the opening of Libro Primero; PA78, the opening of Libro Segundo with its first chapter on licence and examination and its figure for the yield of Potosi; PA113, chapter XXI of Libro Segundo on where quicksilver is lost; PA123 and PA124, the opening of Libro Tercero, which narrates the discovery of the hot amalgamation process, the priority claims of others, and the provision granted by the Real Audiencia de La Plata; PT2, PT3 and PT4, the table of the chapters of the five books." }, { "id": "pena-montenegro-itinerario-1678", "title": "Itinerario para parochos de indios, en que se tratan las materias mas particulares, tocantes a ellos, para su buena administracion", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=gbVRAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Alonso de la Peña Montenegro, obispo del obispado de San Francisco del Quito, del Consejo de su Magestad; nueva edicion purgada de muchos yerros, en Leon de Francia, a costa de Joan-Ant. Huguetan y Compañia, M.DC.LXXVIII, con licencia. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The Lyon 1678 edition of the bishop of Quito's manual for the parish clergy of the Indies, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set below the tier because the author is an ordinary writing about the clergy he governs and about a jurisdiction he is defending, and because the volume is an edition describing itself as corrected rather than the first printing: no first-edition date appears anywhere in the front matter opened here, so this corpus asserts none. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09: PP1, the binding; PP5, a blank leaf; PP7, the title page with the Lyon imprint and the Huguetan colophon; PP9, the dedication to the Conde de Peñaranda, president of the Council of the Indies, in which the author dates his reception as colegial of the Colegio Viejo de San Bartolome to 1632; RA2-PA36, on the doctrinero who does not know the language of his parishioners; RA2-PA370, introducing the determinations of the archbishop of Lima on the justice of the conquests; RA2-PA371, the determinations themselves on restitution by conquistadors and their heirs; RA2-PA389, on judges, corregidores and the opening of the session on the restitution owed by encomenderos. The volume carries a working text layer, used here only to locate pages, never as a text source. Page added 2026-08-16 for the interpretes-de-las-audiencias-de-indias object: RA2-PA494, printed page 494, which closes a session on the confessor's duty over usurious loans among Indians and opens \"SESSION IX. Si es licito confessar por interprete a los Indios, quando el Cura no sabe la lengua?\", reporting the common opinion of grave doctors that confession through an interpreter does not oblige, \"utpote infamatoria respectu interpretis\" (taken from Juan Sánchez disp. 32 num. 9 with Enríquez), extending the excuse to the article of death on the authority of Vázquez, and holding the priest nevertheless bound to do what he can by signs." }, { "id": "maddison-owid-gdppc", "title": "GDP per capita (Maddison Project Database 2023), Our World in Data grapher", "url": "https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gdp-per-capita-maddison-project-database", "publisher": "Maddison Project Database 2023 (Bolt and van Zanden), served by Our World in Data; CC BY", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "license": "CC-BY-4.0", "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Full CSV downloaded and queried 2026-08-09 (21,585 rows, 2011 international dollars). Values verified for the claims made here - c.1600 Spain 1,295, United Kingdom 1,691, Mexico 799, Peru 921; c.1700 Mexico 1,476, Spain 1,280, United Kingdom 2,412, Peru 1,157; 1820 Mexico 1,007, Peru 835, United States 2,674, Spain 1,558; 1850 Mexico 1,054. Early-modern observations are scholarly reconstructions with sparse underlying data - orders of magnitude and relative positions, not precise levels." }, { "id": "grafe-irigoin-gehn-2006", "title": "The Spanish Empire and Its Legacy: Fiscal Re-distribution and Political Conflict in Colonial and Post-Colonial Spanish America (GEHN Working Paper 23/06)", "url": "https://www.lse.ac.uk/Economic-History/Assets/Documents/Research/GEHN/GEHNWP23-IrigoinGrafe.pdf", "publisher": "Regina Grafe and Maria Alejandra Irigoin, Global Economic History Network, London School of Economics, May 2006", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Full 13-page PDF read 2026-08-09. Revisionist account of the Spanish American fiscal system against the new-institutionalist \"predatory state\" reading. Verified on the page: the system was \"a network of quasi autonomous interdependent fiscal districts\" with no single fiscal authority; \"the centralisation of authority was more of an aspiration than a reality\"; crown outlays for colonial administration were low - salaries just 3 percent of New Spain's total revenues, 12 percent in 16th-century New Granada and in Peru, 40 percent only in Charcas (citing Klein's American Finances); and the imperial fiscal base \"expanded rather than contracted\" thanks to American labor and silver. A revised version was published as \"A stakeholder empire\" (Economic History Review, 2012)." }, { "id": "sor-juana-inundacion-castalida-1689", "title": "Inundacion castalida de la vnica poetisa, musa dezima, Soror Ivana Ines de la Cruz, religiosa professa en el Monasterio de San Geronimo de la Imperial Ciudad de Mexico", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=_3JVQuoTeaUC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Dedicated to Maria Luisa Gonçaga Manrique de Lara, Condesa de Paredes, Marquesa de la Laguna; brought to press by D. Juan Camacho Gayna, cavallero del Orden de Santiago; en Madrid, por Juan Garcia Infanzon, año de 1689. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The first collected printing of Sor Juana's verse, read as page scans on 2026-08-09 in a digitisation whose copy carries the stamp of the Bibliotheque de Chantilly. Reliability is set below the tier because the volume's framing is not the author's: the privilege, the dedication and the commendatory verses are the work of the courtier who brought the book out, and claims drawn from the preliminaries are evidence of how she was presented in Madrid rather than of what she said. The digitisation is a Sammelband and this is only its first item; the other two printings bound with it are registered separately as sor-juana-segundo-tomo-1693 and sor-juana-fama-y-obras-posthumas-1701. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09: PP1, the marbled binding; PP5, the title page with the Madrid 1689 imprint; PP7, the romance of Don Joseph Perez de Montoro on the \"numerica voz del Nuevo mundo\"; PP9, further commendatory verse; PP17, the Suma del privilegio granted to Camacho Gayna on 19 September 1689, the Fee de erratas signed by Don Martin de Ascarza at Madrid on 17 November 1689, and the Suma de la tassa of 19 November 1689 at six maravedis the sheet. The volume carries a working text layer, used here only to locate pages, never as a text source." }, { "id": "sor-juana-segundo-tomo-1693", "title": "Segundo tomo de las obras de Soror Juana Ines de la Cruz, monja professa en el monasterio del Señor San Geronimo de la Ciudad de Mexico, añadido en esta segunda impression por su autora", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=_3JVQuoTeaUC&pg=RA1-PP1", "publisher": "Impresso en Barcelona, por Joseph Llopis, y a su costa, año 1693. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The Barcelona 1693 reprint of the second volume of her works, bound as the second item of the same digitised Sammelband as sor-juana-inundacion-castalida-1689 and read as page scans on 2026-08-09. It is cited here for one thing its title page states and earlier accounts often leave vague — that the volume was enlarged in this second impression by the author herself — and for the fact, recorded in the Lisbon volume, that the Carta Athenagorica stands at its head. Reliability is set below the tier because this is a reprint made in Europe and no statement about its first printing is asserted from a page opened here. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09: RA1-PP1, the title page with the Barcelona 1693 imprint and the Llopis colophon." }, { "id": "sor-juana-fama-y-obras-posthumas-1701", "title": "Fama, y obras posthumas, tomo tercero, del Fenix de Mexico, y Dezima Musa, poetisa de la America, Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz, religiosa professa en el convento de San Geronimo, de la Imperial Ciudad de Mexico", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=_3JVQuoTeaUC&pg=RA2-PP9", "publisher": "Recogidas, y dadas a luz por el Doctor Don Juan Ignacio de Castorena y Ursua, capellan de honor de su Magestad y prebendado de la Santa Iglesia Metropolitana de Mexico; en Lisboa, por Miguel Deslandes, año de M.DCCI, con todas las licencias necessarias. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The posthumous third volume, bound as the third item of the same digitised Sammelband and read as page scans on 2026-08-09. It is a single printing containing two very different kinds of text, and this corpus does not let one borrow the standing of the other. Her own Respuesta a Sor Filotea is her words, printed six years after her death from a copy she could not correct; the prologue, the biography and the many commendatory poems are the work of her editor and of his subscribers, assembled to promote her fame, and every claim drawn from them is carried here at confidence 0.7 to 0.8 rather than at the tier. Reliability is set well below the tier for that reason. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09: RA2-PP9, the title page with the Lisbon 1701 imprint; RA2-PP1, RA2-PP3 and RA2-PP5, the index of the volume bound before it; RA2-PP7, the verso preceding the title; RA2-PP19, Castorena on her childhood in her grandfather's house, the twenty Latin lessons attested by the Bachiller Martin de Olivas, and the cutting of her hair as a self-imposed deadline; RA2-PP21, Castorena's report from the Marques de Mancera of the examination of the seventeen-year-old by some forty men of letters of the university and city of Mexico, with the viceroy's simile of a royal galleon and a few launches; RA2-PP73, the octaves \"A la piadosa accion de vender sus libros la Poetisa\"; RA2-PA7, the close of the bishop's letter signed Philotea de la Cruz at Puebla on 25 November 1690 and the note that the Carta Athenagorica is not reprinted here; RA2-PA8, the opening of the Respuesta; RA2-PA15, on the inclination to letters and the light of her understanding; RA2-PA35, on the prelate who forbade her to study; RA2-PA37, the observations made while cooking, the question of what women can know, and the line about Aristotle; RA2-PA60, the closing subscription dated at the convent of San Geronimo of Mexico on 1 March 1691. The volume carries a working text layer, used here only to locate pages, never as a text source." }, { "id": "ercilla-araucana-bae-1851", "title": "La Araucana, por Don Alonso de Ercilla y Zuñiga, in Poemas epicos, tomo primero (Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, tomo XVII)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=M1AFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Coleccion dispuesta y revisada, con notas biograficas y una advertencia preliminar, por Don Cayetano Rosell; Madrid, 1851. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The text of Ercilla's poem and of his own prologue as printed in the Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. This is a nineteenth-century collected edition and not any printing the author saw: no sixteenth-century edition of the poem was reachable from this instance, and no date for one is asserted anywhere in this corpus, none appearing on a page opened here. Reliability is set well below the tier for that distance, and the object built on it takes evidence_tier secondary because it also cites the editor's own commentary, registered separately as rosell-advertencia-bae-1851. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09: PA1, the heading, the dedication \"Al Rey nuestro Señor\" and the editor's biographical footnote; PA3, the close of Ercilla's prologue, on composition in the war itself and on the constancy of the Araucanians; PA4, Canto I, the opening octave, the description of Chile and of Arauco, and the passage on command allotted by merit; PA17, Canto IV, on justice, on the unjust hand that seeks a memorial of its own wickedness, and on the author's refusal to write what would be held suspect; PA117, Canto XXXII, on clemency, on vengeance in cold blood, and on the excess beyond the laws and limits of war; PA127, Canto XXXIV, the execution of Caupolican and the author's statement that he was not present; PA141, the prologue of Balbuena's El Bernardo, opened to establish where the Araucana ends in the volume. The volume carries a working text layer, used here only to locate pages, never as a text source." }, { "id": "rosell-advertencia-bae-1851", "title": "Advertencia preliminar to Poemas epicos, tomo primero (Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, tomo XVII)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=M1AFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3", "publisher": "Don Cayetano Rosell; Madrid, 1851. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The editorial preface bound with the poem in the same volume, registered separately because it is nineteenth-century literary criticism and not sixteenth-century testimony, and because letting it share the tier of the text it introduces would be exactly the borrowing this corpus refuses. It is cited for the counterpoint it supplies: the editor's reading of Ercilla's sympathy for the Araucanians as a function of his own character, his list of the poem's faults, and his statement that it went through many editions. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09: PR3, the third page of the Advertencia." }, { "id": "leon-y-gama-dos-piedras-1792", "title": "Descripcion historica y cronologica de las dos piedras que con ocasion del nuevo empedrado que se está formando en la plaza principal de México, se hallaron en ella el año de 1790", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=oIDBIzqNAJoC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Por Don Antonio de Leon y Gama; México, en la imprenta de Don Felipe de Zúñiga y Ontiveros, año de M.DCC.XCII. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The first edition, Mexico 1792, of the earliest sustained study of the two Mexica monuments uncovered in the main square of Mexico City in 1790, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set below the tier because the author is an interested party twice over: he states that the second stone confirmed a calendrical system he had already written, and the licence bound with the book recommends it as an answer to European detractors of Spain. Its readings of the calendar are an argument of 1792 and are not treated in this corpus as settled. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09: PP5, the title page with the Zúñiga y Ontiveros imprint; PP7, the parecer of Fray Joseph Rafael Olmedo of the Real Universidad de México, naming Raynal, Robertson, Buffon and Paw; PA2, on the treasures thrown into the lake, the lost Teoamoxtli, and the call for purposeful excavation on the model of Rome and of Rielves near Toledo; PA3, on the finding of both stones, their removal, the conveyance of the first to the Real Universidad, and the author's method from Nahuatl manuscripts and his own paintings; PA5, on the mathematics, mechanics, geometry, astronomy and chronology inferred from the second stone, and on the confusion caused by the first missionaries; PA10, the viceregal office of 5 and 6 September 1790 ordering the statue to the university and its measurement, weighing, drawing and engraving for publication; PA11, the judicial record of the dates and bearings of both finds and the verbal handover of the second stone to the commissioners of the cathedral fabric; PA33, the nine Companions after Christoval del Castillo and the footnote arguing with Clavijero and Eguiara over his standing. The volume carries a working text layer, used here only to locate pages, never as a text source." }, { "id": "mendieta-libro-iv-cap-xiii-oficios", "title": "Historia eclesiástica indiana, libro IV, capítulo XIII — de cómo los indios aprendieron los oficios mecánicos que ignoraban, y se perficionaron en los que de antes usaban", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=e0Aa0Glxa6UC&pg=PA407", "publisher": "Fray Gerónimo de Mendieta, written at the end of the sixteenth century; first published by Joaquín García Icazbalceta, Mexico, Antigua Librería, 1870. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Registered separately from the chapter of libro IV on the Colegio de Santa Cruz already in this file, because it is a different chapter making different claims and should not borrow that entry's page warrant. Reliability is set below the tier for the same two reasons as the other Mendieta entries: what is printed is an editor's text established in 1870 from manuscript, and the author is a Franciscan writing up his own order's work. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-09 — PA407, the end of cap. XII with the Indian pole-juggler and the heading and first sentence of \"CAPITULO XIII\"; PA408 and PA409, the body of that chapter. Contents relied on - the chapel called of S. José, contiguous to the church and monastery of S. Francisco in Mexico City, named as \"el primero y único seminario que hubo en la Nueva España para todo género de oficios y ejercicios\", not only those serving the church but also those serving lay use; the residence there for many years of \"el muy siervo de Dios y famoso lego Fr. Pedro de Gante, primero y principal maestro y industrioso adestrador de los indios\"; his running of a great school of boys taught doctrine, reading, writing and singing, and his procuring that the older lads take up the trades and arts of the Spaniards \"que sus padres y abuelos no supieron\"; the rooms and lodgings set aside within the precinct of the chapel for the purpose, where the pupils were exercised first in the commoner trades - tailors, shoemakers, carpenters, painters and the like - and afterwards in those of greater subtlety; the note in the margin \"Oficios que de nuevo aprendieron los indios\"; the Spanish masters who hid their craft, \"porque á los que venian de nuevo de España, y pensaban que como no habia otros de su oficio habian de vender y ganar como quisiesen, luego los indios se lo hurtaban por la viveza grande de su ingenio\", including the gold-beater who meant to conceal his trade and said an apprentice would need six or seven years, and whose materials the Indians sampled a little of each until they matched them; the guadamecí-maker who hid his gilding and silvering and to whom the friars said \"Padre, dinos adónde venden esto que traemos. Que si nosotros lo habemos, por mas que el español se nos esconda, haremos guadamecies, y les daremos el color dorado y plateado como los maestros de Castilla\", the friar being one who took pleasure in such tricks and who is said to have been Fr. Pedro de Gante; the saddle-tree maker whose pattern the Indians borrowed for a day while he ate and copied, so that within a week Indians were selling trees in the street at far lower prices; bell-founding learned to great perfection, in measure, thickness and alloy, with \"muchas campanas, chicas y grandes, muy limpias y de buena voz y sonido\"; embroidery taught by an Italian lay friar bred in Spain, Fr. Daniel; and the summary that in the trades they already practised the Indians improved after seeing what the Spaniards made." }, { "id": "mendieta-libro-v-vida-de-pedro-de-gante", "title": "Historia eclesiástica indiana, libro V, parte I, capítulos XVI–XVIII — the three Flemings and the Vida de Fr. Pedro de Gante", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=e0Aa0Glxa6UC&pg=PA606", "publisher": "Fray Gerónimo de Mendieta, written at the end of the sixteenth century; first published by Joaquín García Icazbalceta, Mexico, Antigua Librería, 1870. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The hagiographical part of Mendieta's work, registered apart from the narrative books and at a lower reliability than they carry, because these chapters are written as lives of holy men of the author's own order and report speeches and miracles at second hand thirty to seventy years after the events. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-09 — PA606, PA607, PA608, PA609 and PA610. Contents relied on - the three chosen men of the convent of S. Francisco in the city of Gante, the guardian Fr. Juan de Tecto, and his two subjects Fr. Juan de Aora, a priest, and Fr. Pedro de Gante, a lay brother, who came to New Spain by licence of their provincial and with the goodwill of the Emperor and reached the Indies in 1523, \"antes que los doce\"; their beginning to learn the language of the natives and to gather children of principal men, especially at Tezcuco; the exchange with the twelve apostolic men who arrived in 1524, when Fr. Juan de Tecto, asked what they were doing, answered \"Aprendemos la teología que de todo punto ignoró S. Augustin\", meaning the language of the Indians, he having read theology fourteen years at the university of Paris before going to the Indies; the death of Tecto of hunger on the Hibueras expedition with Cortés; the death of Juan de Aora at Tezcuco; the heading \"CAPÍTULO XVIII. Vida de Fr. Pedro de Gante, uno de los tres primeros\"; Gante a Fleming of the city or town of Iguen in the province called Budarda, who took the habit as a lay brother and would not be of the choir \"por su gran humildad\"; that he was \"muy ingenioso para todas las buenas artes y oficios provechosos á la humana y cristiana policia\", and \"fué el primero que en esta Nueva España enseñó á leer y escribir, cantar y tañer instrumentos musicales, y la doctrina cristiana, primeramente en Tezcuco á algunos hijos de principales, antes que viniesen los doce\"; his building in Mexico of \"la suntuosa y solemne capilla de S. José\", the school of children where at first the sons of the lords of the whole land were taught and now all the boys of the city, and next to the school workshops or apartments of houses where the Indians were taught to paint and where images and altarpieces were made for the temples of the whole land, and others taught stonemasonry, carpentry, tailoring, shoemaking \"y los demas oficios mecánicos\"; his own cell beside the school; that he was \"naturalmente tartamudo, que por maravilla los frailes le entendian, ni en la lengua mexicana los que la sabian, ni en la propria nuestra\", yet the Indians understood him in their language as if he were one of them; that he composed in Nahuatl \"una doctrina que anda impresa, bien copiosa y larga\"; his founding of confraternities and choirs and provision of ornaments for the divine offices in the chapel of S. José; the fifty years he lived in the land; the saying reported of the second archbishop, Fr. Alonso de Montúfar, \"Yo no soy arzobispo de México, sino Fr. Pedro de Gante, lego de S. Francisco\"; that Charles V, being of his own country and knowing his person and life, esteemed him greatly and is said to have offered him the archbishopric of Mexico, which with the licences of Paul III, of the general chapter at Rome through Fr. Vicente Lunel, and of a nuncio at the court of Charles V, he refused, declining even to be ordained priest and confessing the temptation in a letter to the fathers of Flanders; his letters to Flemish religious of his nation urging them to come for want of workers; the Indian woman who wished to have a habit made for devotion and was told by Fr. Melchior de Benavente to clothe five religious and himself among them, and who named Fr. Pedro de Gante among the six although he was then dead, with Benavente's reply and her rejoinder \"Padre, yo doy en ofrenda un hábito á Fr. Pedro de Gante\"; and that he built more than a hundred churches and broke many idols and destroyed their temples." }, { "id": "sahagun-relacion-del-autor-t3-1830", "title": "Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España, tomo tercero — the Relación del autor digna de ser notada appended to libro X", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=FgsOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA80", "publisher": "Fray Bernardino de Sahagún; dala a luz con notas y suplementos Carlos María de Bustamante, México, Imprenta del Ciudadano Alejandro Valdés, calle de Santo Domingo y esquina de Tacuba, 1830. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Sahagún's own sixteenth-century Spanish, but at two removes and with an interested editor between the reader and the manuscript: what is printed is Bustamante's 1830 text, set from a copy, with his own footnotes running under the author's page and occasionally arguing with it, and the author is a Franciscan defending the college he himself taught in against people who wanted it closed. Reliability is held well below the tier for those two reasons. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-09 — PP5, the title page of tomo tercero with the 1830 imprint, the dedication to Pius VIII and the description of Bustamante as deputy for the state of Oaxaca; PA80, PA81 and PA82, the Relación del autor; PA282 and PA283, the editor's closing note to the herbal chapters. Contents of PA80 to PA82 relied on - the passage on how complaints of the Indians are punished, the accused \"casi siempre caen con la persona, y los castigan malamente con solapacion y disimulacion, cargándoles la mano en los servicios corporales y personales, y haciéndoles otras vejaciones de que los pasientes ni se pueden quejar, ni se saben remediar\", so that they complain in secret and the friars must keep silence; the statement that the Indians had no letters or characters and could not read or write, but \"comunicábanse por imágenes y pinturas, y todas las antigüallas suyas y libros que tenian de ellas, estaban pintados con figuras é imágenes de tal manera, que sabian y tenian memorias de las cosas que sus antepasados habian hecho y dejado en sus anales, por mas de mil años atrás, antes que viniesen los españoles á esta tierra\"; that most of these books were burnt when the other idolatries were destroyed, and yet many were hidden and have been seen; the teaching of the boys \"á leer, escribir, y cantar\" in the friars' own houses and the decision to put them to grammar, \"para lo cual se hizo un colegio en la ciudad de México, en la parte de Santiago del Tlaltelolco\", to which the ablest boys of all the surrounding towns and provinces were chosen and where they slept and ate; the mockery of the Spaniards and other religious, who \"reíanse mucho y hacian burla, teniendo por muy averiguado que nadie sería poderoso para poder enseñar gramática á gente tan inhábil\", and the outcome that after two or three years the pupils came to understand all the matter of grammar, to speak and understand and write Latin, \"y aun á hacer versos heroycos\"; Sahagún's own line \"yo fuí el que los primeros cuatro años trabajé con ellos, y los puse en todas las materias de la latinidad\"; the objections raised by seculars and ecclesiastics alike once the college prospered, that if these men were not to be priests what use was grammar to them, that it put them in danger of heresy, and that reading scripture they would learn that the ancient patriarchs had many wives at once and would not believe what is preached of monogamy; and the answers given, that the friars wished to know by experience how far the pupils' ability extended so as to bear witness to it, and that the risk of heresy was met by their being subject to a most Christian prince and remediable in hand." }, { "id": "bustamante-1830-sahagun-editor", "title": "Editorial notes and closing address of Carlos María de Bustamante in the 1830 tomo tercero of Sahagún's Historia general", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=FgsOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA282", "publisher": "Carlos María de Bustamante; México, Imprenta del Ciudadano Alejandro Valdés, 1830", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Registered apart from Sahagún's text so that nineteenth-century editorial opinion does not borrow the tier of the sixteenth-century original. Bustamante is a politician and publicist writing in the first decade of Mexican independence and his notes argue a case; reliability is set accordingly. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-09 — PA81, the three footnotes beneath Sahagún's Relación, and PA282 with PA283, the editor's own signed reflection headed \"EL EDITOR\". Contents relied on - the footnote identifying the first chair of grammar as set up in the chapel of S. José at S. Francisco and naming \"S. Juan de Letran fundado por el P. Motolinia\", which \"reunieron en él talleres de ártes y oficios por su buen celo\"; the footnote on D. Antonio Valeriano de Azcapotzalco, whose letter in Latin the editor says he has read in manuscript in the Turriana library and calls a model of epistolary correspondence; the footnote ascribing the contradictions the college met to \"la rivalidad que hubo entre los niños indios, y los hijos de los españoles conquistadores, que se mordian al ver que los primeros les eccedian, porque no se les chiqueaba y hacian estudiar con teson\"; the editor's remark that the preceding chapter shows \"el doble conocimiento que los antiguos mexicanos tenian de la Botánica, y de la Medicina, pues sabian aplicar las yerbas á las enfermedades conocidas\", where the botanical books of the day are perhaps limited to descriptions of plants; the anecdote of a celebrated healer called \"el Doctor Indio de Valladolid de Michoacan\", who confounded the pride of the Protomedicato of Mexico when it summoned him for punishment as an empiric and a charlatan, by applying to his sinodales a herb that produced a violent haemorrhage they could not stop and then a powder that at once staunched the blood; the editor's lament at the near-total loss of the good Mexican language and its abandonment by the Spaniards, and at the \"terrible persecucion que ha sufrido á consecuencia de varias órdenes de la Córte de Madrid para que se extinga\"; and his petition that the supreme government order a botanical expedition through the whole republic to reexamine and classify the Mexican plants against Linnaean nomenclature, closing with the hope that an indigenous physician who possesses both the language and botany will one day correct Sahagún's notices." }, { "id": "veracruz-speculum-coniugiorum-1572", "title": "Speculum coniugiorum, third edition — the articles on the marriages of the natives of the new world", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=C8pD3jNOl3sC&pg=PA577", "publisher": "Alonso de la Vera Cruz, of the Order of Hermits of St Augustine; Compluti [Alcalá de Henares], ex officina Ioannis Graciani, anno 1572. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The author's own Latin, in a printing he revised himself. Reliability is set below the tier because he is arguing a case he has an institutional stake in, and because the volume is the third recension of the work rather than the first: the title page says as much. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-09 — PA1, the title page; PA3, the royal licence; PA9, the dedicatory letter; PA489, the opening of Articulus XXIX; PA577 and PA579, within Articulus X. Contents relied on - the title page, \"SPECVLVM CONIVGIORVM ADMODVM R.P.F. ILLEPHONSI A VERA CRVCE SACRI ORDINIS EREMITARV S. Augusti, bonarum artium, ac sacrae Theologiae Magistri, moderatorisque cathedrae primariae in vniuersitate Mexicana in partibus Indiarum maris Oceani: olim ibi Prouincialis eiusdem ordinis, Nunc Prioris sancti Philippi apud Madritum Carpentanorum\", with \"CVM INDICIBVS LOCVPLETISSIMIS\", the note that the work is now for the third time worked over by the author, pruned of the many errors it swarmed with and enlarged in many places and brought into line with what was defined and declared in the sacred council of Trent by way of an appendix at the end, \"CVM PRIVILEGIO\", and the imprint \"COMPLVTI, Ex officina Ioannis Graciani, Anno, 1572\"; the running head of the article read here, \"Articulus. X. Quid obser. a iudi. Eccle.\"; within it, the argument that bishops are not held to observe such solemnity of law with the natives of the new world, \"cum noui orbis indigenis\", it being enough that they commit the business to men who can act simply and plainly; the ground given, that \"neophytos in noui orbis esse tam miserabiles, quod si opus sit notario, nec necessaria solum habet pro victu quotidiano praestare poterunt\", so that the requirement would be very burdensome to bishops and neophytes alike; the argument that where truth can be had without writing, there is no need to compel witnesses to swear, and that in the simplicity of these people the truth comes out \"sine aliquo strepitu, et figura iudicij\"; the injunction that prelates deal with them \"tanquam patres, quam tanquam iudices\", understanding the business in conscience; the comparison of a judge who will not act without the notary to a physician who lets the sick man die with the medicine in his hand, \"perinde est, sicut si iaceret infirmus, et esset medicina in promptu: tamen quia medicus non est, permittatur mori\"; and, at the head of Articulus XXIX on the cases in which the marriage of infidels is dissolved, the passage marked in the margin \"In fauorem Indorum\" arguing that among the neophytes these cases may well not arise at all, \"propter eorum facilem conuersionem, et innatam mansuetudinem\"." }, { "id": "speculum-1572-licencia-y-dedicatoria", "title": "The royal licence of Philip II and the dedicatory letter of Juan Negrete prefixed to the Speculum coniugiorum of 1572", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=C8pD3jNOl3sC&pg=PA3", "publisher": "Chancery of Philip II, Madrid, 17 November 1570, and Ioannes Nigretus, archdeacon and rector of the university of Mexico; printed at Compluti [Alcalá de Henares], ex officina Ioannis Graciani, 1572", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "Registered apart from the body of the book because these are documents by other hands - a chancery instrument and a colleague's letter - and the biographical facts they attest should not rest on the author's own account of himself. Reliability is higher than the treatise's because the licence is an administrative record of a transaction, not an argument. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-09 — PA3 and PA9. Contents relied on - the licence, granted in the name of \"Don Philippe por la gracia de Dios rey de Castilla, de Leon, de Aragon\", reciting that \"por parte de vos el maestro fray Alonso de la Vera Cruz de la orden de sant Augustin, cathedratico de la cathedra de prima de Theologia en la vniuersidad de Mexico, nos fue fecha relacion, diziendo que vos auiades compuesto vn libro intitulado Speculum coniugiorum: el qual en el año passado de sesenta y dos auiades añadido y con nuestra licencia lo auiades impresso, y agora lo auiades tornado a ver, y añadido en el, todas las determinaciones del sacro concilio Tridentino, que del matrimonio trataua\"; the conditions imposed, that the impression be made from the original signed by the scrivener of chamber Juan Fernandez de Herrera and rubricated on every leaf, that the printed book be brought back to the council with its original before any copy is sold, and that the price be assessed, on pain of the penalties of the pragmatic; the date, \"Dada en Madrid, a diez y siete dias del mes de Nouiembre de 1570 años\", with the names of the doctors and licentiates who signed; and, from PA9, the heading of the dedicatory letter, \"DOMINVS IOANNES NIGRET IN ARTIBVS, ET Theologia Magister, et in metropoli Mexicana Archidiaconus, et Vniuersitatis Rector, Fratri Illephonso a Vera Cruce religiosissimo Augustiniano, sapientissimoque magistro, et primario moderatori in Academia Mexicana\", a contemporary attestation by the university's own rector of the office the author held there." }, { "id": "feijoo-teatro-critico-t2-1765", "title": "Theatro critico universal, o discursos varios en todo genero de materias, para desengaño de errores comunes. Tomo segundo", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=GMwBU1BBu_IC&pg=PA348", "publisher": "Fr. Benito Geronimo Feyjoo y Montenegro, maestro general de la Religion de San Benito, del Consejo de S. M.; nueva impresion, en la qual van puestas las adiciones del Suplemento en sus lugares; en Madrid, en la Imprenta de Antonio Perez de Soto, año M.DCC.LXV, a costa de la Compañia de Impresores, y Libreros del Reyno. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The second tome of the Teatro critico, read as page scans on 2026-08-09 for discourse XV, \"Mapa intelectual, y cotejo de Naciones\". Reliability is set below the tier for three reasons the volume supplies itself: this is the Madrid 1765 printing, not the sheets of the late 1720s, and its own title page states that the additions of the Suplemento have been moved into their places in the text, so the wording is not guaranteed to be that of the first impression; the author is arguing a thesis rather than reporting; and his evidence for the Americas is entirely second-hand testimony by Europeans, one item of which he warns may contain \"algo de hyperbole\". Pages opened and read 2026-08-09: PP11, the title page with the Perez de Soto imprint and the date M.DCC.LXV; PP21, the table of the discourses of the second tome, which places \"Mapa intelectual, y cotejo de Naciones\" as discourse XV at page 348; PP39, the close of the censura of Fr. Joseph Navajas, dated at the convent of the Santisima Trinidad de Redentores Calzados of Madrid, 28 February 1728; PA348, the opening of the discourse; PA362, the end of the section on Asia, the whole of the section on Africa, and the opening of the section on America; PA363, PA364, PA365 and PA366, the section on America to its close. The volume carries a working text layer, used here only to locate pages, never as a text source." }, { "id": "concilios-mexicanos-lorenzana-1769", "title": "Concilios provinciales primero, y segundo, celebrados en la muy noble, y muy leal Ciudad de Mexico, presidiendo el Illmo. y Rmo. Señor D. Fr. Alonso de Montufar, en los años de 1555, y 1565", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=sMREAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA143", "publisher": "Dalos a luz el Illmo. Sr. D. Francisco Antonio Lorenzana, arzobispo de esta Santa Metropolitana Iglesia; con las licencias necesarias, en Mexico, en la Imprenta de el Superior Gobierno, de el Br. D. Joseph Antonio de Hogal, en la Calle de Tiburcio, año de 1769. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The acts of the first Mexican provincial council of 1555, read as page scans on 2026-08-09 in the edition published at Mexico City in 1769 by archbishop Lorenzana. Reliability is set below the tier because this is an eighteenth-century edition, not the Juan Pablos printing contemporary with the council, and because its editor was an archbishop pursuing a reform programme of his own, whose lives of his predecessors are bound in the same volume; the chapters cited here are nevertheless printed as the council's own text and carry the running head \"Concilio primero\" on every page used. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09: PP5, the title page, whose ink is badly faded in this scan and which is quoted here only where legible; PA69, the close of the chapter enumerating the feasts and fasts obligatory on Indians; PA132, chapters on fees for the sacraments and on lodging Spaniards in clergy houses among Indians, and the opening of chapter LX; PA137, the close of the chapter on founding religious houses and the whole of chapter LXIII on the confession of Indian principales; PA143, chapter LXVIII on visiting the jails and the opening of chapter LXIX on sermons and translation; PA144, the close of chapter LXIX and the opening of chapter LXX on markets and hospitals; PA145, the close of chapter LXX and the opening of chapter LXXI. The volume carries a working text layer, used here only to locate pages, never as a text source." }, { "id": "alcedo-diccionario-indias-1786-t1", "title": "Diccionario geográfico-histórico de las Indias Occidentales ó América: es á saber: de los Reynos del Perú, Nueva España, Tierra Firme, Chile, y Nuevo Reyno de Granada. Tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=4yevWyjMfbkC&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Escrito por el Coronel D. Antonio de Alcedo, Capitan de Reales Guardias Españolas; con licencia, en la Imprenta de Benito Cano, en Madrid año de MDCCLXXXVI. Full-view digitisation of the Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The first of the five tomes of Alcedo's dictionary, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set below the tier for reasons the book states about itself: it is a compilation, its author says his materials came from another man's library and consultas and from \"mas de 300 libros de Indias\" whose confusion and inexactitude he complains of, he warns in the same prólogo that many of his articles are thin, and the ethnographic generalisations in the article AMERICA are his own opinion and not evidence of anything but it. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09: PP7, the title page with the Benito Cano imprint, the date MDCCLXXXVI and the stamp of the Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève; PR3, the opening of the prólogo, on foreigners writing the history of the Indies and carrying the Spanish histories out of Spain; PR4, on the American products that drew that interest and on the choice of the dictionary form over a universal history; PR5, on the informant, a minister of more than forty years' service in America whom the Court called the Oráculo de América; PR6, on twenty years of continuous work, on the author's hesitation to publish, and on Coleti's Italian dictionary; PR7, on Coleti and on the English Gacetero Americano, on the count of articles under the letter A, and on the author's birth in America; PR8, on the reading of more than three hundred books of the Indies and on the thinness of the minor articles. PA68 and PA69, the whole of the article AMERICA. The volume carries a working text layer, used here only to locate pages, never as a text source." }, { "id": "alcedo-thompson-dictionary-1812-t3", "title": "The Geographical and Historical Dictionary of America and the West Indies. Containing an entire translation of the Spanish work of Colonel Don Antonio de Alcedo, Captain of the Royal Spanish Guards, and Member of the Royal Academy of History: with large additions and compilations from modern voyages and travels, and from original and authentic information. Vol. III", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=FuI-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "By G. A. Thompson, Esq.; printed for James Carpenter, Old Bond-Street; Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown; White, Cochrane, and Co.; Murray; Parker, Oxford; and Deighton, Cambridge. London, 1812. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The third volume of the London edition of Alcedo in English, read as page scans on 2026-08-09 and used here only as evidence of the translation's existence, scale and editorial method. Reliability is set below the tier because the volume is by its own title an adaptation - \"with large additions and compilations from modern voyages and travels\" - so no wording in it may be taken as Alcedo's, and because Thompson's additions carry his own commercial and political interest in Spanish America. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09: PP7, the title page, with the statement of an entire translation of the Spanish work, the five-volume extent, the London booksellers and the date 1812; PA426, a specimen opening (NIAGARA, NIBEQUETEN, NICAGUA, NICARAGUA) showing the bracketed \"[Alcedo.]\" that closes the translated matter before the English additions begin, the Niagara article carried forward to the treaty of 1794 and the British handover of 1796, and the Nicaragua article keeping Alcedo's list of bishops from Don Diego Alvarez Osorio, \"native of America\", elected first bishop of the diocese in 1531. The volume carries a working text layer, used here only to locate pages, never as a text source." }, { "id": "mercurio-peruano-1791-t3", "title": "Mercurio peruano de historia, literatura, y noticias públicas que da á luz la Sociedad Academica de Amantes de Lima, y en su nombre D. Jacinto Calero y Moreira. Tomo III, que comprehende los meses de Septiembre, Octubre, Noviembre, y Diciembre de 1791", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=xhZzHnBJknMC&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Con superior permiso, impreso en Lima: en la Imprenta Real de los Niños Huérfanos, 1791. Full-view digitisation of the Bodleian Library copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The third bound tome of the Lima periodical, covering numbers 69 onward, September to December 1791, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set below the tier because a periodical is a party in its own cause: the introduction to this tome is an answer to the paper's critics, the notices of its own reception are chosen by its editors, and the ethnographic articles are unverified reports sent in by correspondents. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09: PP7, the title page with the Imprenta Real de los Niños Huérfanos imprint and the Bodleian stamp; PA1 (fol. 311), número 69 of 1 September 1791 and the Introducción al tomo III; PA45, the rules announced for the prize competition on the roads of the kingdom; PA77, the article on the peoples of the eastern missions, with the passage on head-binding and on memory; PA131, the letter to the Society on music in dramatic representations; PA165 and PA168, the Mercurio's review of the Papel Periódico of Santa Fe, with the footnote on periodicals suppressed by the Holy Office; PA169 and PA170, the discourse on the Mercurio reprinted from that paper, with the list of the members' pseudonyms and the footnote on the thirty-eight days between the two papers' first numbers; PA171 (fol. 172), número 88 of 6 November 1791, the Society's own correction of that list; PA257, the meteorological table for November; PA258, the continuation of the list of subscribers. The volume carries a working text layer, used here only to locate pages, never as a text source. Read again as a page scan on 2026-08-15, page opened: PA125, the long editorial note on the treatment of malignant and autumn fevers, whose text charges \"Un Autor Patricio, de cuyas aplicaciones ha hecho la Europa el justo aprecio que se merecen\" with having dishonoured neither truth nor country in publishing that many died in Lima of malignant fevers \"por el temor y morosidad de sus Profesores en recurrir á la áncora sagrada\"; whose note 9 identifies that author as \"Joseph Emanuel de Davalos Doctor Monspeliens. De Morbis Limae grassantibus: pag. 21\" and records that \"El Diario Medico de Paris, y el Espir. de los mej. Diar. de Europa elogian esta apreciable obrita\"; and which closes with the cascarilla dosages, the statement that the note was lengthened \"con el designio de que la Medicina de estos paises dexe de ser una ciencia puramente tradicionaria\", and the request that practitioners send in their observations." }, { "id": "martinez-reportorio-1606", "title": "Reportorio de los tiempos, y historia natural desta Nueva España", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=70nA_q0C1rgC&pg=PP9", "publisher": "Compuesto por Henrrico Martinez, cosmographo de su Magestad e interprete del Sancto Officio deste Reyno; con licencia y privilegio, en Mexico, en la emprenta del mesmo autor, ano de 1606. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The Mexico 1606 first printing, read as page scans on 2026-08-09. Reliability is set below the tier for reasons internal to the book: two of its six tratados are judicial astrology, its author is an interested party writing to recommend himself to the viceroy it is dedicated to, and its historical matter is compiled at second hand. The volume carries no usable text layer - jscmd=SearchWithinVolume returns zero results for terms that are demonstrably on its pages - so every page here was located by walking the page-id sequence and confirmed by its own printed folio number and running head. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09 - PP9, the title page with the arms of Mendoza and the imprint of the author's own press; PP11, the approbation of Fr. Hernando Bacan given at Santo Domingo de Mexico on 8 August 1605; PP13, the parecer of Doctor Hernando Franco Risueno given at Mexico on 4 June 1605; PP14, the archbishop's licence of 28 June 1605, signed Fr. G. Archiepiscopus Mexicanus by order of Licenciado Sebastian Torrero; PP15, the opening of the dedication to the viceroy Don Juan de Mendoza y Luna, Marques de Montesclaros; PP17 and PP19, the Prologo, including the passage on books brought from the kingdoms of Spain not agreeing with the meridian and climate of this land; PP21, PP26, PP28, PP30 and PP31, the Tabla de los tratados y capitulos, which places tratado primero cap. VI on the extent of astrology at fol. 10, tratado tercero cap. XV on the lake of Mexico at fol. 185, the magna conjuncion of December 1603 at fol. 201, and announces after the five tratados a relacion of memorable events from 1520 to 1590; RA4-PA185 and RA4-PA186, the whole of tratado tercero cap. XV; RA4-PA213, tratado quinto on the fall of the Turkish empire, with Lucas Gaurico and Nostradamus named. Google's page ids for this volume are not folio-aligned below about fol. 20 - RA4-PA1 and RA4-PA10 return lunarios for 1617 and 1619 - so no claim here rests on a page whose printed folio number was not read off the scan." }, { "id": "alzate-gacetas-1831-t1", "title": "Gacetas de literatura de Mexico, por D. Jose Antonio Alzate Ramirez, socio correspondiente de la Real Academia de las Ciencias de Paris, del Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid, y de la Sociedad Bascongada. Tomo primero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Ps5pQHuxUhEC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Puebla, reimpresas en la oficina del hospital de S. Pedro, a cargo del ciudadano Manuel Buen Abad, 1831. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The first tome of the Puebla reprint of Alzate's Mexico City gacetas of 1788-1790, read as page scans on 2026-08-09 and used here for the texts Alzate published over his own name. Reliability is set well below the tier because this is a reprint set thirty-one years after the original numbers and thirty-two years after the author's death, by an editor with his own purposes, so no reading here can be checked against the 1788 sheets; and because the gacetas are a periodical speaking in its own cause, several of the pieces printed in them being letters from correspondents rather than the editor's own work. The volume carries no usable text layer. Pages opened and read 2026-08-09 - PP5, the title page with the Puebla 1831 imprint, the three corresponding memberships and the motto \"Aurum alios capiat, merces mihi gratia vestra\"; PP7, the engraved portrait; PA1, the opening of Alzate's own Prologo, on the want of a periodical worthy of the metropolis of the New World and on the attempts of 1768 and 1771; PA20, the end of the satirical dialogue on scholastic disputation and the whole of the article BOTANICA against Linnaean nomenclature; PA29 and PA30, the close of a correspondent's medical report and the opening of the letter on the ruin of agriculture in America; PA49, the close of the chemical method for detecting alum in spirits and the text of the prize question proposed by the Academy of Lyon; PA55, the close of the reply of the Director of the Royal Botanical Garden, dated Mexico 12 July 1788; PA280, the close of a literary controversy and the opening of the article on the origin of the Mexican Indians; PA298, the article on the lac-producing ant and the opening of the reply on lightning rods. PT2 and PT4, the Indice of the tome. Reopened 2026-08-16 and PA25 read as a page scan that day: the passage on the amate germinating in the scales of a palm, the statement of purpose \"esponer ideas sueltas para dar à entender los muchos tesoros que la naturaleza tiene vinculados à la Nueva España\", the maguey paragraph - \"con solo hacerse cargo del Maguey se puede componer una larga disertacion: veo que Hernandez, aquel gran botánico, describió lo que vio: otros le han copiado, ò han surtido ideas superficiales\", and \"puedo asignar mas de treinta utilidades que los indios consiguen por medio del maguey\" - with the footnote \"¿El Maguey es árbol, ò arbusto?\", and the attack on \"el alucinado Pau\" for judging American productions weak from his cabinet in Berlin." }, { "id": "alzate-gacetas-1831-prologo-editor", "title": "Prologo del editor to the Puebla reprint of the Gacetas de literatura de Mexico", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Ps5pQHuxUhEC&pg=PP9", "publisher": "Unsigned editorial prologue, Puebla, oficina del hospital de S. Pedro, a cargo del ciudadano Manuel Buen Abad, 1831. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-09", "notes": "The two-page prologue the 1831 Mexican reprinter set in front of Alzate's own, read on 2026-08-09 at PP9 and PP11 of the same volume. Registered separately from the Alzate texts because it is not Alzate and not 1788 - it is an independent republic's editor, writing with an explicit political purpose, making biographical claims about a man dead thirty-two years for which he cites no document. Its statements about the Paris Academy reading and printing Alzate's memoirs, about the observation of the transit of Venus of 1769 and about a map of North America engraved at the Academy's expense are therefore carried here at secondary tier and at reduced confidence, and the object's evidence_tier follows this source rather than the printed gacetas beside it. The same prologue is useful evidence of one thing at first hand - what a Mexican editor of 1831 chose to reprint and chose to say he had not omitted." }, { "id": "ruiz-pavon-flora-peruviana-1798-t1", "title": "Flora Peruviana, et Chilensis, sive descriptiones, et icones plantarum Peruvianarum, et Chilensium, secundum systema Linnaeanum digestae, cum characteribus plurium generum evulgatorum reformatis. Tomus I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=2wRHAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP9", "publisher": "Auctoribus Hippolyto Ruiz, et Josepho Pavon, Reg. Acad. Medic. Matrit. sociis; superiorum permissu, typis Gabrielis de Sancha, anno M.DCC.XCVIII. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The first tome of the Madrid 1798 folio, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Reliability is set below the tier for reasons the book supplies about itself. Its six-page Praefatio is the expedition's own account of the expedition, written by two of its members while the remaining volumes were still unpublished and while they depended on the crown for the money to print them, so its statements about the enterprise's value and about the conduct of others - Dombey above all - are those of an interested party. The whole volume is in Latin and was read here in that language, which is the second reason the claims drawn from it are held at or below 0.85. Pages opened and read 2026-08-10 - PP1, the binding; PP9, the title page with the Sancha imprint and the date M.DCC.XCVIII; PR1 to PR6, the whole of the Praefatio, pages I to VI, including the note on Tafalla and Pulgar continuing the work in Peru, the losses in the ship Alcantara and the fire at Macora, the list of predecessors in Peru and Chile, the description method, the promise of an index of vernacular names, and the decision to publish in Latin alone; PA1, the opening of Classis I Monandria Monogynia with the entries for Canna paniculata, Canna indica and Canna iridiflora; PA20, Diandria Monogynia, with Calceolaria virgata, Pinguicula involuta, Utricularia aphylla and Utricularia unifolia; PA45, Triandria Monogynia, with the new genus Anthodon, Callisia repens and Calyxhymenia expansa; PR20, plate XX, three species of Calceolaria. The volume carries a text layer that was not used - every page cited here was opened as an image and read from the scan, and the plate and page numbers quoted were read off the sheets." }, { "id": "unanue-clima-de-lima-1815", "title": "Observaciones sobre el clima de Lima, y sus influencias en los seres organizados, en especial el hombre. Segunda edicion", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=JahkAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Por el Doctor Don Hipolito Unanue, catedratico de prima de medicina en la Real Universidad de San Marcos, director del Colegio de Medicina y Cirugia de San Fernando; en Madrid, en la Imprenta de Sancha, ano de 1815, con las licencias necesarias. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The Madrid 1815 second edition of a work first printed at Lima in 1806, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Reliability is set below the tier because the volume is a revised edition whose author states in its own Advertencia that he has corrected, illustrated and completed the book, so no wording in it can be quoted as the wording of 1806; because the author is an interested party twice over, arguing a thesis about climate and praising by name the two institutions he had himself procured and directed; and because the notices of the book's own reception printed in its front matter were selected by the author. Pages opened and read 2026-08-10 - PP1, the binding; PA1, the title page with the Sancha imprint, the date 1815 and the author's offices; PA3 and PA5, the Advertencia a la segunda edicion with the footnote citing Humboldt and The Medical and Physical Journal and the long extract from the Memorial Literario de Madrid of 20 May 1808; PA7, the close of the Advertencia, dated Lima 2 April 1814; RA1-PA1, Seccion I, Historia del clima, with the position of Lima; RA1-PA13, the barometric readings and the note on the morning of 30 April 1808; RA1-PA79, the four fossil molars and the opening of paragraph III on the influences of climate on man; RA1-PA99, on the artists of Mexico, Quito and Cuzco and the Indian boys of the Colegio del Principe, with the footnote citing Jefferson; RA1-PA102, on the vivacity of ideas and on the indolence of the Indians; RA1-PA104 and RA1-PA106, the tables of the castes of Lima and the table headed Salta-atras; RA1-PA125, on the epidemic years and on who died in them; RA1-PA149, the rules for administering the vaccine, citing Waterhouse and Humboldt; RA1-PA313, the Conclusion, on the Anfiteatro de Anatomia and the Colegio de San Fernando. The volume carries a working text layer, used here only to locate pages, never as a text source. Read again as a page scan on 2026-08-15, page opened: RA1-PA7, printed page 7 of Seccion I, on the reputation of the waters of Lima as crudas e indigestas and on their analysis - more than usual selenite, much greda marcial, different fatty earths, waters growing more impure as they are carried from their source through the public pilas, and saturation with ayre fixo - whose notes cite \"Dr. Bueno: Disert. del Agua. Efemerid. 1759\" and \"Dr. Davalos: Informe sobre las Aguas. M. S. 1789\", followed by the remark that Dr. Matias Porras had noticed the same difference in 1621 and had recommended the puquios of San Cristoval." }, { "id": "oviedo-historia-1851-tomo1", "title": "Historia general y natural de las Indias, islas y tierra-firme del mar Oceano, primera parte - the text of Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=yw4-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA280", "publisher": "Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes, primer cronista del Nuevo Mundo; publicala la Real Academia de la Historia, cotejada con el codice original, enriquecida con las enmiendas y adiciones del autor, por D. Jose Amador de los Rios. Primera parte. Madrid, Imprenta de la Real Academia de la Historia, 1851. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Oviedo's own text, read as page scans on 2026-08-10 and again on 2026-08-16. Reliability is set below the tier because the author is an interested party: a royal official and chronicler writing for the crown that employed him, resident in the Indies as a beneficiary of the settlement he describes, and a declared opponent of Las Casas. The edition is a nineteenth-century one, but its editor states that the Academy resolved to conserve Oviedo's peculiar orthography as well as his diction, which is why sixteenth-century spellings are quoted from it here. Pages opened and read 2026-08-10: PR1, the title page with the 1851 Madrid imprint and the words PRIMERA PARTE; PR3, the dedication to Isabel II; PA280-PA282, book VII chapter XIV, on the fruit the Christians called pina, carrying the indigenous names yayama, boniama and yayagua, the argument from the five senses, the comparison with the gardens of Ferdinand the Catholic and of the duke of Ferrara, the admission that pen, words and plate all fail, the remark that palates differ as faces do, the propagation of the plant from its crown, and the count of the languages of Tierra Firme as an obstacle to conversion. Pages opened and read 2026-08-16: PA85, book III chapter XI, the first mares brought from Andalusia and the collapse in horse prices, the twenty powerful ingenios and the horse trapiches, the arroba of sugar at a ducat, and the note that until there was sugar the ships went home empty; PA118-PA121, book IV chapter VIII on the ingenios and trapiches of Hispaniola, with the credit to the bachiller Gonzalo de Velosa, the contrary testimony for Pedro de Atienza and Miguel Ballester, the masters fetched from the Canaries, the ten to fifteen thousand ducats a mill cost, the eighty to a hundred and twenty enslaved people each mill required, the herds it ate, the failed mills founded by jurists and lost for want of water, and the horse trapiches worked by \"las vidas de muchos caballos\"; PA273-PA274, book VII chapters III to V, the ajes and the men who fed their Indians and blacks on nothing else, and the whole short chapter on the mani. Used only for claims resting on those pages; the editorial matter of the same volume is registered separately as amador-de-los-rios-advertencia-1851." }, { "id": "amador-de-los-rios-advertencia-1851", "title": "Advertencia to the Real Academia de la Historia edition of Oviedo's Historia general y natural de las Indias, primera parte, pages V-VII", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=yw4-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PR5", "publisher": "Jose Amador de los Rios for the Real Academia de la Historia; Madrid, Imprenta de la Real Academia de la Historia, 1851. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The editor's preface to the 1851 volume, read as page scans on 2026-08-10, and registered apart from Oviedo's text in the same volume so that the text cannot borrow the preface's tier or the preface the text's. Tier is secondary: although the editor writes at first hand about the recovery of the manuscripts, which he carried out, most of what is taken from him here concerns sixteenth-century printings he did not witness. Pages opened and read: PR5, the Academy's charge as cronista mayor de Indias, the three works that most excited its zeal (Oviedo, Las Casas, Sahagun), the decision to head the Coleccion de historiadores de Indias with Oviedo, the division into fifty books, and the footnote correcting the belief that the whole of the Naufragios went into the first edition and recording the printing of book XX in 1557; PR6, the loss of the four volumes copied for Juan Bautista Munoz, Miguel Salva's location of eight volumes of the second part in the crown's Patrimonial library and twelve of the third in the Biblioteca Colombina; PR7, the recovery of book XXVIII from papers of the suppressed Jesuit archive in a folio of four hundred and thirty leaves, the preference for the 1547 printing over that of 1555, and the resolution to preserve the author's own orthography." }, { "id": "oviedo-historia-1855-tomo4", "title": "Historia general y natural de las Indias, islas y tierra-firme del mar Oceano, tercera parte, tomo IV - the text of Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=sPhWiXIS3HMC&pg=PA271", "publisher": "Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes; publicala la Real Academia de la Historia, por D. Jose Amador de los Rios. Tercera parte, tomo IV. Madrid, Imprenta de la Real Academia de la Historia, 1855. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The third part of Oviedo's history, printed from the codices in 1855 and read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Reliability below the tier for the reasons given under oviedo-historia-1851-tomo1. Pages opened and read: PP3, the marbled endpaper; PR3, the title page with the words TERCERA PARTE - TOMO IV and the 1855 Madrid imprint; PA270-PA271, book XLVII chapter IV, on the interpreter of Nueva Castilla who is praised for his Castilian, his grasp of the vegetative, sensitive and rational soul and his address, and called a traitor two paragraphs later; PA304, narrative of the quarrel between Almagro and Alvarado, with the editor's footnote on the two spellings of Argonez. The digitisation exposes pages only to PA304 followed by four plates, so libro L, the book of shipwrecks that closes the work, could not be opened in this volume and nothing is claimed from its text." }, { "id": "amador-de-los-rios-advertencia-1855", "title": "Advertencia to the Real Academia de la Historia edition of Oviedo's Historia general y natural de las Indias, tercera parte, tomo IV, pages V and VIII", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=sPhWiXIS3HMC&pg=PR5", "publisher": "Jose Amador de los Rios for the Real Academia de la Historia; Madrid, Imprenta de la Real Academia de la Historia, 1855. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The editor's preface to the fourth volume, read as page scans on 2026-08-10 and registered separately from the text it introduces. Pages opened and read: PR5, the statement that the third part was unpublished until this volume, only some chapters of libro L having been given to the press in 1547 and 1555 at Salamanca and Seville under the title Infortunios e naufragios, the tribute to the late director Luis Lopez Ballesteros, the twelve books of the third part, and the note that Oviedo's narrative stops at 1548, the last date he cites; PR8, the treatment of Atahualpa's bad usage by the victors, the documentary method - trustworthy witnesses known to him plus letters from the principal captains and the Pizarros and eyewitness relations cited, extracted or inserted whole, with Astete, Molina, Davila, Bobadilla, Almagro and above all Alonso de Montemayor named - the use and correction of Xerez's Conquista del Peru printed in 1547, and the description of libro L as a report of every shipwreck in the western seas to 1548 closing with the author's reasons for preferring Castilian to Latin. Where this preface and the 1851 one differ about what was printed of libro L in the sixteenth century, the corpus states each as its volume states it." }, { "id": "ludewig-american-aboriginal-languages-1858", "title": "The Literature of American Aboriginal Languages, by Hermann E. Ludewig, with additions and corrections by Wm. W. Turner, edited by Nicolas Trubner", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=BA9bAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA159", "publisher": "London, Trubner and Co., 1858. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "A bibliography of the printed grammars, vocabularies and comparative notices of the indigenous languages of the Americas, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Its value for this corpus is that it is independent of any Spanish case: the compiler worked in New York, the editor completed and published it in London. Reliability is set at 0.75 for three stated reasons - it is a compilation at second hand from catalogues and correspondence rather than from the books themselves in every case; the compiler died in December 1856 with only 172 pages printed off, so most of the volume never had his final revision; and at least one date in the passage used here is internally inconsistent, since it gives 1586 for Gonzalez Holguin's Quichua vocabulary and then lists the 1607 and 1608 Lima volumes as its reprint. Pages opened and read: PR7, the compiler's preface on the scarcity and dispersal of the material and on Trubner's revision; PR9, the editor's advertisement recording Ludewig's death, the 172 pages, the one-sixth of additions and the deposit of the manuscript with the Ethnological Society of New York; PA10, the Araucan entries, with Valdivia's Lima 1606 Arte y Gramatica, Febres's Lima 1765 Arte with the Doctrina Christiana bound in, the 1846 Santiago reprint made for the service of the missions, and the nineteenth-century comparative works of Hervas, Adelung, Balbi, Marsden, D'Orbigny, Smith Barton and Horatio Hale; PA11, further Araucan entries including Falkner and Havestadt; PA158, the close of the Kachiquel section and the headnote to Quichua on its extent from Pasto to the Maule, its continued use and its five dialects; PA159, the Quichua words and vocabularies - Santo Tomas at Valladolid 1560, Gonzalez Holguin reprinted at Lima 1607 and 1608, Torres Rubio at Seville 1603 and Lima 1619, 1700 and 1754 with Figueredo's additions, Juan Martinez 1604, the 1614 Francisco del Canto Arte y Vocabulario, and the short non-Iberian notices in de Laet, Gilij and Hervas. Read again as page scans on 2026-08-12 for the Oaxacan languages, pages opened: PA120, the Mixteka headnote with its six dialects and the ranking of Tepozkolula as the best, Alvarado's 1593 Vocabulario under Pedro Balli, and Diego Rio's manuscript dictionary; PA121, the Mixtec grammars, with Reyes styled Vicario del Convento de Tamazulapa and his Arte given as Mexico 1593, 12mo, pp. 16, 163, said to contain notices of the ancient history and of the mode of computing years, and Francisco Ortiz's manuscript grammar and catechism; PA207, the head of the Zapoteca section; PA208, the Zapotec words, vocabularies and grammars - Cordova's Vocabulario entered twice, at Mexico 1578 and at Mexico 1571, Cordova's Arte given as Mexico 1564 with De Souza's date of 1578 noted against it, Pedro Feria with his dates and offices, Cristobal Aguero and his Miscellaneo of 1666, Pedro Cueva's Arte of 1607 framed on Nebrija, and the manuscripts of Antonio Pozo and Geronimo Moreno. The internal inconsistency recorded above recurs here in a sharper form: the same page enters one dictionary as two books under two dates, which is the reason the Zapotec dating claim in this corpus sits below 0.9." }, { "id": "clavijero-historia-antigua-ackermann-1826-t2", "title": "Francisco Xavier Clavigero, Historia antigua de México, tomo II (Ackermann, London 1826), containing the Disertaciones sobre la tierra, los animales, y los habitantes de Mégico", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=5Sl6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA193", "publisher": "Read in the facsimile of the Ackermann edition of 1826 published by the Gobierno del Estado de Puebla, Secretaría de Cultura, with prólogo by Luis González and epílogo by Elías Trabulse", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-10: PP11 (title page of the facsimile), PA7, PP18 (index of the Disertaciones), PA193 and PA194 (the half-title and the Al Lector), PA215, PA313 and PA318. Registered as secondary rather than primary on purpose. This is not Clavijero's text as he wrote it: the original is the Italian Storia antica del Messico (Cesena, 1780-81), and what is reachable here is the Spanish translation printed by Ackermann in London in 1826, at one remove from the author, in a modern facsimile. No full-view copy of the Italian original could be found from this container. Quotations therefore reproduce the 1826 Spanish sheets and are described as such in the object." }, { "id": "trabulse-epilogo-clavijero-1826-facsimil", "title": "Elías Trabulse, epílogo to the facsimile of Clavigero's Historia antigua de México (Ackermann 1826), tomo II", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=5Sl6AAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA14", "publisher": "Gobierno del Estado de Puebla, Secretaría de Cultura", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "Page RA1-PA14 opened and read as a scan on 2026-08-10, running head \"ELÍAS TRABULSE\". Verified on the page - the Bologna libraries and archives available to Clavijero in exile; Maneiro's report that the initial project was a dictionary of pre-Hispanic antiquities before a friend persuaded him to write a history; and the characterisation of De Pauw's Recherches Philosophiques sur les Américains as one of the most formidable denigratory attacks on the peoples, cultures and nature of the New World. A modern scholarly essay printed with the facsimile, so it shares the volume with the source above but is a separate source with a separate tier." }, { "id": "critical-review-1787-clavigero", "title": "Notice of Charles Cullen's translation, The History of Mexico ... By Abbé D. Francesco Saverio Clavigero, in The Critical Review, or Annals of Literature (1787)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=wI1KAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA410", "publisher": "The Critical Review, or Annals of Literature, London, 1787", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "Page 410 opened and read as a scan on 2026-08-10. Primary evidence of what a London reviewing journal printed about the book in 1787, not of any fact about Mexico. Verified on the page - the full title as advertised, including the Critical Dissertations and the copper plates, the price of two guineas in boards, the publisher Robinsons; the judgement that the History is \"copious and entertaining\" but \"sometimes debased by a little superstition\"; the reviewer's own description of the Mexicans as \"surrounded, almost entirely, by untutored savages\"; and the reviewer's error placing Clavijero in South America for forty years." }, { "id": "molina-history-of-chili-1808-v1", "title": "The Geographical, Natural and Civil History of Chili, by Abbe Don J. Ignatius Molina, vol. I (the natural history), Middletown, Conn., 1808", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=iRcTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP9", "publisher": "Printed for I. Riley, Middletown (Conn.), 1808; translated from the original Italian by an American gentleman", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "Pages PP9 (title page) and PR9 (preface) opened and read as scans on 2026-08-10. Registered as secondary, not primary: the originals are the Italian Saggio sulla storia naturale del Chili (Bologna, 1782) and Saggio sulla storia civile del Chili (Bologna, 1787), neither of which is reachable in full view from this container, and this English version carries notes from the Spanish and French versions and rearranges the author's technical descriptions, as its own translator's footnote states." }, { "id": "molina-history-of-chili-1808-v2", "title": "The Geographical, Natural and Civil History of Chili, by Abbe Don J. Ignatius Molina, vol. II (the civil history), Middletown, Conn., 1808", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=0loTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA55", "publisher": "Printed for I. Riley, Middletown (Conn.), 1808; translated from the original Italian by an American gentleman", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "Pages PR1 (title page), PR5 and PR6 (contents of Books I to III), PA49, PA55 and PA61 opened and read as scans on 2026-08-10. Same standing as volume I: an 1808 American English translation of the Bologna 1787 Italian original, with an appendix of extracts from Ercilla, so one remove from the author's text." }, { "id": "edinburgh-review-1809-molina", "title": "Article IV, Molina's Account of Chili, in The Edinburgh Review, or Critical Journal (July 1809)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=RHzQAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA333", "publisher": "The Edinburgh Review, or Critical Journal, Edinburgh, 1809", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "Pages 333 and 334 opened and read as scans on 2026-08-10. Primary evidence of the reception of Molina in Britain in 1809. Verified on the pages - the two Italian originals named with their Bologna imprints of 1782 and 1787; the natural history \"highly esteemed by all the naturalists of Europe\" and the civil history \"rarely to be met with in England\"; Pinkerton quoted from Modern Geography vol. iii pp. 665 and 701; Molina identified as a native of the country he described and as one of the Jesuits driven from it by the suppression, grouped with Clavigero of Mexico and Viscardo of Peru; and the reviewer's charge, with a quoted instance from Storia Naturale book iv p. 334, that the American translator worked from the French version rather than the Italian." }, { "id": "mercado-summa-tratos-sevilla-1587", "title": "Summa de tratos, y contratos, compuesta por el muy reverendo padre fray Thomas de Mercado, de la Orden de los Predicadores, maestro en sancta theologia. Dividida en seys libros", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=1S48AAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Con licencia, en Sevilla, en casa de Fernando Diaz impressor, ano de M.D.LXXXVII, a costa de Diego Nunez mercader de libros; full-view digitisation of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The printed sheets themselves, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Reliability is set below the tier for two reasons the volume supplies on its own title page: this is not the first printing but an enlarged one, the title page announcing that many new resolutions and two whole books were added to the earlier edition, so the text read here is later than the text first published; and Mercado writes as a confessor and adviser to the merchant community of Seville whose practice he is judging, which makes him a well-placed witness and an interested one. No page opened here gives a date for the first edition, and this object asserts none. Pages opened and read - PP1, the limp vellum binding; PP5, the title page, which also carries the price fixed at five blancas the sheet and a manuscript ownership inscription of the Benedictine house of Benediktbeuern, with the Munich library stamp; PA102-IA1, folio 102 verso, the opening of the chapter in Libro Segundo on the two dealings the author judged most scrupulous and even scandalous on the gradas of Seville, the refusal to enter on the question of the king of Portugal's jurisdiction, the statement of what the law allows, and the marginal citations to Soto de iustitia et iure and Aristotle; PA103, folio 103, the titles by which a person may lawfully be enslaved - capture in war, public crimes punished under local law, and sale of children by parents in extreme necessity - and the comparison of West African polities with the Indies of the west; PA104, folio 104, the methods by which those titles were manufactured in practice, the ambushes on wooded roads, and the author's first-person statement that he had seen many arrive in that manner; PA104-IA1, folio 104 verso, the trinkets used to lure people aboard, the ships weighing anchor with the taken, the report that abuses had been partly remedied by penal laws enforced by the king of Portugal, the four hundred taken without licence or register by a man the author knew, the public estimate that of every two who left one was deceived or forced, the four to five hundred packed in a single ship and the twenty per cent losses; and PA105, folio 105, the hundred and twenty found dead in one morning out of five hundred shipped from Cape Verde for New Spain and nearly three hundred dead before Mexico, the comparison with the treatment of Christian captives by the Turks, the mass baptism with a hyssop on the shore, and the two concluding propositions in law with the reasons given for the second." }, { "id": "azpilcueta-comentario-cambios-salamanca-1556", "title": "Comentario resolutorio de cambios, sobre el principio del capitulo final de usuris", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=l288AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA48", "publisher": "Martin de Azpilcueta; acabose de imprimir en la muy noble ciudad de Salamanca, en casa de Andrea de Portonarijs, impressor de la S.C.M., a doze de agosto M.D.LVI; full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1556 sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. The volume is a composite: the Comentario resolutorio de cambios is the second treatise in it, opening at printed page 48 with its own drop-title, and the running heads alternate between the commentary on exchanges and the commentary on the final chapter de usuris. No title page was served for this copy by the page-image endpoint, so the imprint recorded here is taken from the colophon leaf, which was opened and read. Pages opened and read - PT1, the colophon, printing in full that the present work was finished at Salamanca in the house of Andrea de Portonariis, printer to the Imperial Majesty, on 12 August 1556; PA48, the drop-title of the commentary and its starting point, the decretal Naviganti quoted in Latin and then rendered in Castilian, followed by the summary of the numbered questions; PA84, the running index entries on money as the price of other things and on how it rises; PA85, the comparison of what goods and the hands and labour of men fetched in Spain before and after the discovery of the Indies covered it with gold and silver, the rule that money is worth more where and when it is scarce, the current premium in reals paid for a doblon above its legal price, the Portuguese observations on ducados and on the teston against cetis, and the Latin authority quoted on money being found more cheaply in some places than others; PA86, the objections raised against the author's own position, his note that the contrary opinion of Doctor Medina had at one time seemed the better to him, and his answer distinguishing the unchanged nominal denomination of the coin from the changed quantity of goods it commands." }, { "id": "munoz-historia-nuevo-mundo-madrid-1793", "title": "Historia del Nuevo-mundo, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=3HoFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR1", "publisher": "Escribiala D. Juan Baut. Munoz; en Madrid, por la Viuda de Ibarra, MDCCXCIII. Full-view digitisation of the British Library copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1793 sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. The tier is what the printed volume earns; reliability is set well below it for one reason that the document cannot repair on its own. The prologue is the royal cosmographer's own account of his own diligence, written for the ministry that commissioned and paid him, and every statement in it about the state of the archives, about the freedom he was given and about the value of what he found is a statement by an interested party with nothing set against it. Nothing read here is a third-party check on any of it. Pages opened and read - PP5, a blank leaf; PP9, the title page, giving the work, the author, \"TOMO I\", the Madrid imprint of the widow of Ibarra and the year MDCCXCIII, with the British Library stamp and shelfmark; PR1, printed page I, the royal order of 17 July 1779, the opening of the Indies archives in Madrid, the general cedula of 27 March 1781 and the acknowledgement of ministerial support; PR2, page II, the statement that the commission carried no direction as to manner, matter, arrangement or style, and the description of how little was known about the state of the royal archives; PR3, page III, the indices of the secret archive of the Council of the Indies, the registers kept in the secretaria del Peru and the near-absence of letters and relations by discoverers and governors; PR4, page IV, the papers thrown away as illegible and worm-eaten, and the find at Simancas set against what Leon Pinelo and Riol had seen of it; PR5, page V, the profession of universal doubt and of proceeding on documents alone, and the itinerary through Simancas, Seville, Cadiz and the Portuguese royal archive of the torre do tombo; PR6, page VI, the manuscript harvest from the royal libraries of Madrid and the Escorial and from a named list of colleges, cathedrals and convents; PR7, page VII, the manuscripts found to be better than their printed versions and the opening of the critical review of the printed literature; PR28, page XXVIII, the announced apparatus - an appendix of proofs, citations and conjectural discussions, and a separately published collection of unpublished documents; PR29, page XXIX, the map of Hispaniola built from the first nine chapters of the then unpublished Apologetica historia of Las Casas; PR30, page XXX, the closing appeal to anyone holding unpublished papers on the Indies to communicate them for the common benefit, with a promise of public acknowledgement, followed by the errata for the prologue." }, { "id": "garriga-bru-descripcion-esqueleto-madrid-1796", "title": "Descripcion del esqueleto de un quadrupedo muy corpulento y raro que se conserva en el Real Gabinete de Historia Natural de Madrid", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=T6c35xaNYPEC&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Publicala Don Joseph Garriga, capitan de ingenieros cosmografos de estado; Madrid, MDCCLXXXXXVI, en la imprenta de la Viuda de Don Joaquin Ibarra, con licencia. Full-view digitisation of the Real Escuela de Veterinaria de Madrid copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1796 sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Reliability sits below the tier because the volume is a priority claim as well as a description: the publisher states on his own prologue that he is printing it to do justice to the Spanish naturalist and to the nation against a French notice, which makes him an excellent witness to the sequence of events and an interested one as to their merits. The book is also composite - a publisher's prologue, an anatomist's description written years earlier, and a translation of a foreign notice - and the three voices are kept distinct in this corpus. Pages opened and read - PP5, the title page with the Madrid 1796 imprint of the widow of Joaquin Ibarra and the ownership stamp of the Real Escuela de Veterinaria; PP7, the prologue, on how the Cuvier notice reached Madrid, how the plates it used were traced to Juan Bautista Bru, disector of the Real Gabinete, how Bru's own description was recovered and bought, and that the French notice had been formed from Bru's plates and a short relation by Roume without sight of the skeleton; PP8, the continuation of the prologue, the stated motive of doing justice to Bru and to the nation, the statement that this was the first of its species received of the three then in the kingdom, the consignment from the Marques de Loreto, viceroy at Buenos Ayres, received on 29 September 1789 in seven crates, the find on the banks of the river Luxan thirteen leagues west-south-west of Buenos Ayres in a bank ten varas high, the other two specimens from Lima and from Paraguay, and the admission that the characters missing from the specimen prevented classifying it with certainty; PR1, printed page I, the skeleton as mounted on a pedestal in the room of petrifactions of the Real Gabinete; PR2, page II, the general description of the head and jaw; PA1, printed page 1, the advertencia stating that the description records observations made at the time of mounting and placing the skeleton, that human anatomical names are kept where a relation exists, and that comparative anatomy fails here because the specimen is unique in its species; PA16, page 16, the close of the osteological description; PA17, page 17, the Spanish translation of the notice given by Gregorio Cuvier, with the depth and terrain of the find, the mounting in Madrid, the examination by Roume, the five folio plates engraved in Madrid, the vertebral and rib counts, the absent pubis and ischion, the clawed phalanges, the four molars on each side and the conclusion that the assemblage of characters distinguishes the animal from every one then known." }, { "id": "garcia-icazbalceta-catalogo-1886", "title": "Bibliografía mexicana del siglo XVI. Primera parte. Catálogo razonado de libros impresos en México de 1539 á 1600, con biografías de autores y otras ilustraciones, precedido de una noticia acerca de la introducción de la imprenta en México", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=cr0TAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA325", "publisher": "Joaquín García Icazbalceta; México, Librería de Andrade y Morales, Sucesores, 1886. Full-view digitisation, Google Books, volume id cr0TAAAAYAAJ", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "The descriptive catalogue of Mexican printing from 1539 to 1600, by a collector who owned or had collated many of the books he describes, who transcribes their title pages and colophons letter for letter including the gothic type, prints the licences and approbations, and reproduces a few title pages in photolithographic facsimile. Tiered secondary and cited as such: the sixteenth-century sheets are read here at one remove, and Icazbalceta marks in his own text where he worked from a copy sent to him rather than from one in his hands, or from a book he had seen once and never found again. He is an arguing witness who corrects Beristáin, Nicolás Antonio, Rich and Ternaux-Compans by name and who prints the objections to his own conclusions, which is why the counterpoints in the objects built on him did not have to be imported from a critic. A parallel scheduled run has registered the same volume under the id icazbalceta-bibliografia-mexicana-1886 for a different set of entries; if both branches land, the two registrations describe one book and should be merged rather than left as rivals. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-11: PA123, the photolithographic facsimile of the 1563 title page of the Cedulario de Puga with the arms of Philip II, the gothic title and the Ocharte imprint; PA125, the close of that entry — the commission of 3 May 1563, the Latin dedication, the bull of Alexander VI and the clause of Queen Isabel's testament on folios 4 and 5, the collation in gothic type at 47 lines to the page, the colophon of 23 November 1563 and the tasa at one real the pliego, followed by the biography of Vasco de Puga and the footnote on the Indians' painted complaints against him; PA126, the statement that the Cedulario was the first compilation of the laws of America, the argument against Rich and Ternaux-Compans on the 1543 printing of the New Laws, and the history of the failed 1872 reprint and the 1878-79 edition; PA127, the sequence from Alonso Maldonado through Puga, Toledo, Encinas and Aguiar y Acuña to León Pinelo and the four hundred thousand cédulas; PA172, the biography of Alonso López de Hinojosos, his fourteen years at the Hospital Real de indios, the inspection of cadavers with the protomédico Francisco Hernández during the cocolixtli of 1576, his entry into the Society of Jesus in 1585 and death in 1597, and Beristáin's ten-book description of the Suma; PA230, entry 81 of 1578 with Icazbalceta's statement that he had not seen the first edition; PA325, entry 97 of 1587, the title page of the Instrucción náutica with the Ocharte imprint and the collation to folio 156 with its nautical vocabulary; PA326 and PA327, the biography of Diego García de Palacio — the Santander birth, the trials of American timber and henequen rigging, the two galleons of a thousand tons, the Guatemala oidorship and the 1576 relación, the Teguzigalpa contract and the Philippine petition, the doctorate of 1581 and the rectorship, the 1587 command against Drake, the loss of the Santa Ana, and the Real Academia's use of the book for the Diccionario de Autoridades; PA407, the Correcciones to page 230, where a complete copy of the 1578 Suma y Recopilación de Cirugía communicated in May 1885 is described from the title page and the approbations of Farfán, Bravo and De la Fuente down to the seven tratados and the colophon of 26 May 1578." }, { "id": "ximenez-historias-1857-text", "title": "Las historias del origen de los indios de esta provincia de Guatemala, traducidas de la lengua quiche al castellano: title page, Ximenez's Prologo and the opening of the history", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=jlMTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1", "publisher": "Fray Francisco Ximenez, O.P., written at Santo Tomas Chichicastenango in the first decades of the eighteenth century; printed from the manuscript of the library of the University of Guatemala by Carl Scherzer, Londres, en casa de Trubner & Co., 1857, at the expense of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "Ximenez's own Spanish, but at one remove: what is printed is an editor's transcription of a manuscript, made in 1854-57, and reliability sits below the tier for that distance and because the title page states that only the Spanish text of the manuscript is reproduced. Pages opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-10 - PR1, the title page, giving the full title, the translation \"de la lengua quiche al castellano para mas comodidad de los ministros del S. Evangelio\", the author \"el R. P. F. Francisco Ximenez, cura doctrinero por el real patronato del pueblo de S. Thomas Chuila\", the statement that the printing follows \"exactamente segun el texto español del manuscrito original que se halla en la biblioteca de la Universidad de Guatemala, publicado por la primera vez, y aumentado con una introduccion y anotaciones por el Dr. C. Scherzer\", the imprint Londres, Trubner & Co., 60 Paternoster Row, 1857, and the line \"a expensas de la Imperial Academia de las Ciencias\"; PA1, printed page 1, Ximenez's own Prologo - that many will hold this the most subtle and vain of his works and he holds it the most useful and necessary, that it brings to light what there was in antiquity among these Indians, that \"se reduce esta mi obra, a dar luz y noticia de los errores que tuvieron en su gentilidad, y que todavia conservan entre si\", and his method, \"quise trasladar todas las historias a la letra de estos indios, y tambien traducirla en la lengua castellana, y ponerle los escolios que al fin van puestos, que son como anotaciones de la historia\"; PA2, printed page 2, the second purpose - to undeceive those who, not knowing the language or having heard the matter at second hand, judge these histories \"ser cosa muy conforme a razon, y a nuestra Santa fe\", among them a grave religious whose authority nearly persuaded him - and his verdict on the text he had just copied out, that from its beginning it says things conformable to Holy Scripture but that these are \"envueltas en mil mentiras y cuentos que no le debe dar mas credito, que el que tiene el Padre de mentiras, Satanas, quien fue su tutor\", as with what Satan \"procuro dar por boca de Arrio, Lutero, Calvino, Mahoma\"; PA5 and PA6, printed pages 5-6, the creation narrative itself - the statement that \"antiguamente habia libro original que se escribio antiguamente; sino que esta escondido al que lo mira, y al que lo piensa\", the sky and earth squared, divided in four parts, staked out and measured with cords, and the rubric \"Este es su Ser dicho cuando estaba suspenso en calma, en silencio, sin moverse, sin cosa sino vacio el cielo\", followed by the first word and eloquence, before there were men, animals, birds, fish, crab, wood, stone, hollow, ravine, straw or forest." }, { "id": "ximenez-historias-1857-scherzer-introduccion", "title": "Las historias del origen de los indios de esta provincia de Guatemala: Carl Scherzer's Introduccion (pages III-XVI)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=jlMTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR3", "publisher": "Dr. Carl Scherzer, Londres, en casa de Trubner & Co., 1857, at the expense of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The editor's own account of how he found the manuscripts, written by a naturalist and traveller who is also the party claiming credit for the find; his statements about what was destroyed and why are partly inference and are reported as such. Pages opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-10 - PR3, page III, the opening of the Introduccion on how little the ancient history of Central America was known; PR5, page V, the losses since separation from the metropolis in 1823 and the suppression of all the convents by general Morazan in 1829, when convents became barracks and prisons and \"montones de libros y manuscritos fueron sacados de sus depositos para fabricar cartuchos\", other treasures leaving by Havana, Madrid, Toledo and Seville, and Scherzer's decision to spend the rainy season of 1854 searching the libraries of Guatemala; PR7, page VII, the manuscripts of \"el Padre Francisco Ximenez de la orden de Santo Domingo\", parish priest of the Indian town of Chichicastenango at the beginning of the previous century, named the greatest treasure of the library of the University of San Carlos, his works often lacking title and leaves, the year 1721 fixed from his own text, and the presumption that his works were long held lost; PR8, page VIII, the reason presumed - that the Spanish chiefs, offended by the severe tone in which Ximenez wrote of \"las violencias sangrientas de los diferentes gobernadores de las colonias\" and of \"la imposibilidad de convertir los indigenas con la bayoneta y el hierro\", suppressed and destroyed his writings on purpose - their survival in an obscure corner of the Dominican convent of Guatemala, their passage to the university library at the suppression of the orders, Scherzer finding them there in June 1854, the missing second and fourth tomes, and the pale and nearly illegible hand that had kept them unread; PR9, page IX, that outside Guatemala Ximenez was known only through extracts published by Ramon de Ordoñez, and Brasseur de Bourbourg's letter of 15 October 1850 from Mexico to the Duke of Valmy describing Ximenez's ancient history of those countries as \"demeuree manuscrite et entierement inconnue\"; PR10, page X, Scherzer's own claim - not to have discovered the manuscripts but to have been the first to direct the attention of the learned world to them and in part to have occasioned their publication - and his admission that a complete copy of all Ximenez's works was beyond his resources and did not seem to him of particular value for science; PR11, page XI, that he had exact copies made of everything bearing on the ancient history of the country, that only three volumes could be found, and the description of the 1031-folio-page third tome of the chronicle of the province of San Vicente de Chiapa y Guatemala running from 1601 to 1698 and written in 1721; PR13, page XIII, the six treatises bound in the volume - the Arte de las tres lenguas Cacchiquel, Quiche y Yutuhil; the tratado segundo of all a minister must know for the good administration of these naturales; the reply dated Guatemala 25 February 1581 of the provincial F. Alonzo de Noveña to questions of Fray Diego Ferrano, vicar in Tecutzitlan, dated 1 September 1570, on doubts about confessing Indians; a confesionario in the three languages with advertencias; a catecismo de indios; and, sixth, \"Las historias del origen de los indios de esta provincia de Guatemala, traducido de la lengua Quiche en la Castellaña... con escolios, escoliadas etc.\" - with the statement that this last treatise is the one published for the first time in the pages that follow." }, { "id": "tercero-catecismo-lima-1583-paris-1867", "title": "Tercero catecismo y exposicion de la doctrina cristiana por sermones, para que los curas y otros ministros prediquen, y enseñen a los indios y a las demas personas, conforme a lo que se proveyo en el santo concilio provincial de Lima el año de 1583: title page, the archbishop's approbation and the Proemio de los sermones", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=gqVEAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Third Provincial Council of Lima, 1583; approved at Arnedo del Peru, 23 July 1584. The sheets read are the Paris reprint, Libreria de Rosa y Bouret, 23 calle Visconti, 1867, whose title page states that the reprinting was ordered by the provincial council of 1773. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The conciliar text, at two removes: the sheets are an 1867 Paris setting of a reprint ordered in 1773, so reliability is set well below the tier and the object built on it is tiered lower still. The volume prints the Spanish alone; no Quechua column appears in any page opened here, though the Proemio states the sermons were translated. Pages opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-10 - PP7, the title page, with the transmission chain printed on it: the doctrine \"conforme a lo que se proveyo en el santo concilio provincial de Lima el año de 1583\", \"MANDADO REIMPRIMIR POR EL CONCILIO PROVINCIAL DEL AÑO DE 1773\", Paris, Libreria de Rosa y Bouret, 1867; PR1 and PR2, the approbation of \"NOS DON TORIBIO ALFONSO MOGROVEJO... Arzobispo de los Reyes, y del Consejo de Su Majestad\", who having seen the Catecismo Tercero \"conforme a lo que en el Concilio Provincial que se celebro en la Ciudad de los Reyes el año pasado de ochenta y tres se platico, y trato\" and the pareceres of the theologians commissioned to examine it, approves the sermons \"por de catolica y sana doctrina, y por muy utiles y provechosos\" and orders that they be published and printed together with the Catecismo \"segun, y como estan escritos, y se contienen en este Original que nos ha sido exhibido\", dated \"en la villa de Arnedo del Peru a veinte y tres dias del mes de Julio de mil quinientos ochenta y cuatro años\" and countersigned by the secretary Juan Rodriguez; PR3 and PR5, the opening of the \"PROEMIO DE LOS SERMONES DEL MODO QUE SE HA DE TENER EN ENSEÑAR, Y PREDICAR A LOS INDIOS\", with the rule that charity obliges the teacher of little ones to come down to them, and the charge that preachers \"que no teniendo la consideracion que deben, mas excediendo de la capacidad, y necesidad de los oyentes, se ponen a predicar a Indios cosas exquisitas, o en estilo levantado, como si predicasen en alguna corte, o universidad: y en lugar de hacer provecho, hacen gran daño\"; PR7, the second and third avisos - that the essential points are to be repeated until the hearers know them thoroughly \"y no lo sepan como poco mas o menos\", the list of those points, and that the style of sermons for Indians \"se requiere ser facil, y humilde, no alto, ni levantado. Las clausulas no muy largas, ni de rodeo. El lenguage no exquisito, ni terminos afectados\", with the hearers described in the same sentence as \"discipulos rudos\"; PR9, the instruction on content - examples from Scripture and \"sobre todo el descubrirles sus errores, y mostrarles la burleria y falsedad que contienen; y desautorizar a sus maestros los hechiceros, declarando sus ignorancias, y embustes, y malicias: lo cual es muy facil de hacer, como se tenga cuidado de saber de raiz sus ritos y supersticiones\" - and the rhetorical doctrine that these Indians \"como los demas hombres, comunmente mas se persuaden, y mueven por afectos, que por razones\", so that apostrophes and exclamations are to be used, they being \"gente de suyo blanda\"; PR11, that the third catechism was not made during the Council itself, unlike the others it approved and published, but was afterwards commissioned from the men who had drawn up the other catechisms and published with the metropolitan's approval, and the distinction between the Catecismo Menor, to be memorised by all Indians \"por rudos que sean\", and the Catecismo Mayor for the more capable; PR12, the structure - thirty-one sermons in all, each with a suma at its head, doctrine first and narration after, \"que es el mejor modo de catequizar, como San Agustin enseña\" - and the statement that the sermons \"se han traducido en la Lengua general del Cuzco por los mismos que el Sinodo nombro para la traduccion del Catecismo, aunque no todos\"; PR13, the reason not all served - absence and other occupations - and the candid statement of who the book is for: \"Pueden aprovechar estos Sermones, lo primero, a los que son faltos de Lengua o de Letras, o de ambas cosas: porque con tomarlos de memoria, y predicarlos con buen afecto, podran sin duda hacer gran fruto en los Indios\", the sermons being, unlike the Catecismo, \"no cosa de obligacion... sino de pura voluntad del que quisiere aprovecharse de este trabajo\"." }, { "id": "concilium-mexicanum-iii-mexico-1770", "title": "Concilium Mexicanum Provinciale III celebratum Mexici anno MDLXXXV, praeside D.D. Petro Moya et Contreras archiepiscopo ejusdem urbis", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=_ngwAOiz7lsC&pg=PA304", "publisher": "Mexici anno MDCCLXX, superiorum permissu, ex typographia Bac. Josephi Antonij de Hogal; the printing made at the care and expense of Archbishop Francisco Antonio de Lorenzana. Full-view digitisation of the Biblioteca Episcopal del Seminario de Barcelona copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "The 1770 Mexico sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-11. What this volume is, stated exactly, because the distinction matters for what may be claimed from it: it is the printed text of the decrees of the third Mexican provincial council, held at Mexico in 1585, confirmed at Rome on 27 October 1589, first published at Mexico in 1622 by royal order at the expense of Archbishop Juan Perez de la Serna, and reprinted here in 1770. It is not the manuscript acts of the council, and it is not the 1622 first edition; it is the eighteenth-century archbishop's printing of the legislation his church was still governed by. Reliability sits below the tier for that reason and for one other - the decrees state what was commanded, never what was obeyed, and this corpus does not treat a command as a description. Pages opened and read - PP5, the title page with the Hogal imprint, the Lorenzana attribution, the engraved vignette and the Barcelona seminary stamp; PP6, the blank verso of the title leaf; PA10, printed page 10, book I title I, the close of the paragraph directing that doctrine be delivered to Spaniards, enslaved Africans, children of one African parent and Chichimecs in Spanish and to the Indians in their own maternal language, then the sections on schoolmasters and on parish priests promoting the erection of schools; PA11, page 11, the completion of the school decree with its own admission that priests abuse the pretext to take Indian labour, the order to restore the just wage, and the section on the doctrine owed to those held in the mines and the ergastula; PA73, page 73, title X on the office of notaries, opened to check the volume's ordinary register; PA166, page 166, book III title II, the sections forbidding priests to sell to their parishioners, limiting them to two horses, forbidding hunting dogs, forbidding the lodging of vagabonds and gamblers, and enjoining benign dealing; PA192, page 192, book III title VI on non-resident clerics, opened to confirm the structure of the fee provisions; PA304, page 304, book V title VIII, the section commanding bishops and lay governors to protect the Indians and to make them held not slaves but free; PA305, page 305, the restitution and confession provisions and the opening of title IX on penalties, exempting Indians from pecuniary penalties; PA311, page 311, the section declaring that a cleric who lives with his own enslaved woman loses ownership of her and that children born of the union are free." }, { "id": "veitia-norte-de-la-contratacion-sevilla-1672", "title": "Norte de la contratacion de las Indias Occidentales", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=n2XiMlcBZpEC&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Por D. Ioseph de Veitia Linage, cavallero de la Orden de Santiago; con privilegio, en Sevilla, por Iuan Francisco de Blas, impressor mayor de dicha ciudad, ano 1672. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The 1672 Seville sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-11. Reliability sits well below the tier for a reason the book cannot repair on its own: its author is the treasurer and juez oficial of the tribunal he is describing, so every statement about how well the Casa de la Contratacion worked is a statement by the institution about itself. What the volume is excellent evidence for is what the rules were and what the offices did, which is what it is used for here. Pages opened and read - PP7, the title page, giving the work, the dedication to the Conde de Penaranda, the author's offices and the Seville imprint of Juan Francisco de Blas, and carrying an ink ownership inscription reading Hodges beside the title; PP11, the censura of Fr. Juan de S. Agustin, given at the Colegio de S. Acacio de Sevilla on 25 September 1671, licensing the book and describing its purpose as giving notice to every officer of the obligations of his post; RA2-PA112, printed page 112, the opening of chapter VII on the Universidad de los Mareantes, its descent from the Seville Colegio de los Comitres attested by a royal cedula of 2 December 1573, its origin as a confraternity, its foundation as house and hospital in 1569, and the list of ranks its name covers. Pages added 2026-08-16 for the juzgado-de-bienes-de-difuntos object: RA1-PA79 and RA1-PA80, printed pages 79 and 80, chapter XII of Libro I, \"Del beneficio, y custodia de los bienes de difuntos, y forma de su adjudicacion, y distribucion\" — the arca de tres llaves and register kept by the judges of the Casa, the sale of the office of depositario general and \"su inmediata quiebra\", the thirty-two chapters (89 to 120) of the ordenanzas comunes under the rubric \"difuntos, y sus bienes\", the cédula of 30 November 1591 on the intestate goods of clergy, and the figures for the borrowing: 39 cuentos 842,947 maravedís owed to the arcas de difuntos since 1561 by the haberia, more than 500,000 ducados represented to the King on 11 January 1633, and 100 cuentos 537,441 maravedís taken between 1629 and 1632, followed by the account of heirs who proved their claim and found nothing to collect and of the private fideicomisos that resulted." }, { "id": "stevens-spanish-rule-of-trade-london-1702", "title": "The Spanish rule of trade to the West-Indies, containing an account of the Casa de Contratacion, or India-House", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Dv5WAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP9", "publisher": "Written in Spanish by D. Joseph de Veitia Linage, made English by Capt. John Stevens; London, printed for Samuel Crouch, at the corner of Pope's-Head-Alley in Cornhil, 1702. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "The 1702 London sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-11. It is a primary printed document of what English readers were given in 1702, and it is used here only for that and for its own paratext; it is an abridging translation, not a witness to the Spanish text word for word, which is why its reliability sits below the Seville original's. Pages opened and read - PP5 and PP6, blank leaves; PP7, the verso of the title leaf, showing the title's offset; PP9, the title page with the Samuel Crouch imprint of 1702 and the summary of contents; PP11, the opening of the dedication to Sir William Hodges, Bart; PP13, the first page of the preface, on the absence of any published account of the trade and on whether Spanish secrecy explains it; PP14, the second page of the preface, on the author's standing and on the Casa as a sovereign court of judicature compared with the English East-India-House; PA166, printed page 166, the 1647 schedule of sureties by rank and the rules for listing soldiers and sailors and registering their particulars." }, { "id": "avendano-thesaurus-indicus-antverpiae-1668", "title": "Thesaurus Indicus, seu Generalis Instructor pro regimine conscientiae, in iis quae ad Indias spectant. Tomus primus", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=H81jAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA22", "publisher": "R. P. Didaci de Avendano, Societatis Iesu; Antverpiae, apud Iacobum Meursium, anno M.DC.LXVIII. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1668 Antwerp sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. The tier is what the printed folio earns. Reliability is set below it for a reason internal to the genre rather than to the copy: this is a manual of moral theology, so it is a first-hand witness to what a professor at Lima printed as binding on the officers of the Indies, and no witness at all to whether any officer obeyed. The author is also an interested party in a second sense worth recording - a censor of the Inquisition dedicating the work to the Royal Council of the Indies, who upholds the papal donation and allows the enslavement of Chileans taken in war on the same pages where he condemns personal service. One navigational point, because it cost this run an hour and will cost the next one the same: the printed INDEX TITULORVM at the front gives PARAGRAPH numbers, not page numbers. Its first entry says so explicitly (\"Num. 1.\") and the rest omit the word. Turning to printed page 109 for the chapter the index lists at 109 lands in a chapter on tithe suits. Titulus I paragraphs run at roughly five to a page, so paragraph 98 is on page 22 and paragraph 120 on page 27. The volume has no OCR search layer - jscmd=SearchWithinVolume returns zero for terms that are demonstrably on the pages - so it must be navigated by arithmetic on the paragraph numbers and then by reading running heads. Pages opened and read - PP3, the title page in red and black, with the Antwerp imprint of Iacobus Meursius, the year MDCLXVIII, the description of the author as Segovian, formerly public and principal professor of sacred theology in Peru and a censor of the Holy Office, the designation TOMVS PRIMVS covering what pertains chiefly to civil government, and a manuscript ownership inscription of the Bibliotheca Maioris Collegii Societatis Iesu dated 1689; PP5, the dedication to the Royal Council of the Indies, with the play on a treasure not extracted from the bowels of the earth but drawn from the deep storehouses of wisdom; PP9, the first leaf of the index of titles, chapters and paragraphs of the earlier tome, listing the chapters of Titulus I from whether the right of the Indies may be doubted through the reduction of Indians to total servitude, the digging of mines, personal service and compulsory labour on public works; PA1, printed page 1, the opening of Titulus I with chapter I, \"An liceat de jure Indiarum in Catholicis Regibus dubitare\", the negative position, and the donation clause of Alexander VI of 4 May 1493 quoted in full; PA22, page 22, the opening of chapter XI on total servitude, the bull of Callixtus III with the inserted grant of Nicholas V quoted at length as the apparent authority for perpetual servitude, and paragraph 98 denying that the Indians may generally be so reduced, with the brief of Paul III of 23 May 1537 to Cardinal Tavera; PA23, page 23, the reserved excommunication and Charles V's edict, the reconciliation of the earlier bulls with Paul III, the description of the peoples in Alexander VI's own bull, Juan de Silva quoted in Spanish that the pope conceded nothing in prejudice of natural right, and paragraph 103 opening the section on when servitude is lawful, with the Chilean war named; PA24, page 24, the royal cedula exempting rebels, paragraph 105 on the law of servitude as an occasion of the ruin of that kingdom and on commanders who preferred plunder to peace, paragraph 106 excluding children with the Granada precedent of Philip II, the author's appeal to his own experience of Indians raised among Spaniards, and the opening of chapter XII on the mines; PA25, page 25, the Horatian tag, the position that compulsion is lawful with moderation, Miguel de Agia's treatise interpreting the rescript of Philip III of 1601 and the count of twelve Lima theologians and ten colleagues of the college of St Philip who subscribed to it, Juan de Silva and Antonio Martinez against, and the manuscript treatise of Francisco Coello which the author states he holds; PA26, page 26, the Spanish text of the rescript of 22 February 1549 to New Spain extended to Peru by Philip II on 30 November 1568, the observation that the burden falls on fewer as the population falls and that the kings seek a remedy and do not find one, the argument from the unquiet royal conscience, the Huancavelica quicksilver mine and Agia's recantation after descending a hundred and fifty of the unit the page calls a status by hanging ladders, the promise of Philip IV to relieve the Indians and import mercury from Europe, and the Indians found sacrificing to the mountain; PA27, page 27, the Exodus and Gideon analogies on oppression as an obstacle to faith, the close of chapter XII, and chapter XIII on personal service with paragraph 120 declaring it certain that the practice cannot stand without grave sin and restitution, the Mexican provincial council dated on the page to 1583 judging the distribution iniquitous with none dissenting, and paragraph 121 rejecting long custom as a defence." }, { "id": "cobo-historia-nuevo-mundo-sevilla-1892-t3", "title": "Historia del Nuevo Mundo, por el P. Bernabe Cobo de la Compania de Jesus, publicada por primera vez con notas y otras ilustraciones de D. Marcos Jimenez de la Espada, tomo III", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=by8rjIFaUkYC&pg=PA295", "publisher": "Sociedad de Bibliofilos Andaluces; Sevilla, Imp. de E. Rasco, Bustos Tavera 1, 1892. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "Registered as secondary rather than primary on purpose, and the reason is worth stating because it differs from the reprint case recorded on 2026-08-09. A reprint is the same text in the same language and can carry the author's tier with a deduction in reliability. This is neither a reprint nor a translation: it is the FIRST printing, made by a nineteenth-century editor from a manuscript the author never saw through the press, and its own title page says so - \"publicada por primera vez con notas y otras ilustraciones de D. Marcos Jimenez de la Espada\". What the sheets are firm evidence of is the text as this edition established it. They are not evidence of the author's autograph, and no page opened here reproduces or describes the manuscript. Reliability sits at 0.85 for the editorial mediation rather than for anything about the copy, which is clean and legible. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-10 - PP1 and PP2, binding and a blank leaf; PA1, the half-title HISTORIA DEL NUEVO MUNDO; PA3, the title page giving the Sociedad de Bibliofilos Andaluces, the author, the statement of first publication and of the editor, TOMO III, and the Seville imprint of E. Rasco for 1892; PA5, the opening of the eleventh book with chapter I, \"Que la America estaba poco poblada, y por que causas\", and the argument from the small number of inhabitants found by the first Spaniards, with Mexico, Santa Fe de Bogota, Cuzco, Quito, Peru and Chile named as the exceptions; PA30, the introduction of the bull of Paul III as reported by Fray Agustin Davila Padilla, on the Indians as rational men capable of the sacraments, and the opening of the bull in Spanish; PA31, the operative clause that they are not to be deprived of liberty or of the ownership of their goods nor reduced to servitude, the voiding of anything done to the contrary, the dating at Rome on 9 June 1537 in the third year of the pontificate, and the author's own closing comment on the ignorance and rudeness of most of the Indians and on what the preachers of the Gospel have achieved among people who seemed so unfit; PA133, book twelve chapter V on the second Inca Cinchi-Roca, the order in his visitation that all cultivate the land needed for sowing potatoes, the spread of cultivation to the hill of Cinga facing Cuzco, the licence for natives and outsiders alike to settle, and Mama Huaco's advice against expansion; PA295, the two Andean ways of reckoning time - pointing at the part of the sky where the sun stood, and the hour a pot of potatoes takes to boil as the unit for short intervals - followed by the account of the quipu as a substitute for writing, the coloured threads and knots as figures and ciphers, the surviving old bundles still readable by Indians who understand them, and the officers called quipocamayos. One navigational note: this volume's page ids run PP1, PP2 and then straight into the PA sequence, so there is no PP9-style front-matter range to search; the title page is PA3." }, { "id": "garcia-origen-de-los-indios-madrid-1729", "title": "Origen de los Indios de el Nuevo Mundo, e Indias Occidentales, averiguado con discurso de opiniones (segunda impresion)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=64_v9LJ-GIoC&pg=PA315", "publisher": "Fray Gregorio Garcia, O.P.; second impression, Madrid, Imprenta de Francisco Martinez Abad, 1729 (first published Valencia, 1607)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "Digitised sheets of the 1729 Madrid second impression, opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Reliability is set below the tier for a stated reason: the title page itself advertises the text as \"SEGUNDA IMPRESION. ENMENDADA, Y AnADIDA DE ALGUNAS OPINIONES, o cosas notables, en maior prueba de lo que contiene, con Tres Tablas mui puntuales de los Capitulos, de las Materias, y Autores, que las tratan\", and the printed page carries dense marginal references to authors who wrote after Garcia died (Hornius 1652, Ovalle, Vasconcelos, Gemelli Careri, Woodes Rogers), which are the 1729 editor's apparatus and not the author's. The 1607 Valencia first edition was not seen, so wording is attributed to the 1729 printing rather than to 1607. Pages opened - PP5, the title page with the Madrid 1729 imprint of Francisco Martinez Abad, the dedication to St Thomas Aquinas and the engraved vignette of ships and a coast; PA2, the opening of the PROEMIO DEL AUTOR AL LECTOR; PA4, on men who found in the Indies that most of the land under the torrid zone is temperate and healthy against what the ancient philosophers taught, on those who went seeking the treasure of science rather than gold and silver, and the survey of earlier writers ending with the statement that Juan de Betanzos's unpublished history was in Garcia's own possession; PA5, headed AL LECTOR, the author's nine years in Peru, the three questions he pursued, the three books he intended and why this one was printed first, his description of his own method, and his notice of Garcilaso Inca as great-grandson of Topa Inga; PA6, the close of the proemio, the sources he used including the spoken report of Indians and Spaniards living in those lands, and his submission of any erring opinion to the correction of the Church; PA313-PA317, LIBRO QUARTO cap. XXV, in which the author declares his own verdict - the four reasons he had for withholding it, the relator-and-judge analogy, the principle that an opinion is to be held for reasons and probable foundations and not for the authority of whoever holds it, the advice of learned men that made him relent, the verdict that the Indians proceed from diverse nations by different routes at different times, and the three foundations he gives for it; PA344-PA348 and PA377-PA380, the TABLA DE LAS COSAS NOTABLES, whose entries under Autor record that he laboured much to found the opinion that the Indians descend from Jews, that he did not wish to give his verdict, and that Betanzos's history served him greatly. Printed page numbers and Google page ids coincide in this volume." }, { "id": "landa-relacion-yucatan-paris-1864", "title": "Relacion de las cosas de Yucatan sacada de lo que escrivio el padre fray Diego de Landa de la orden de San Francisco (Spanish text)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=exorAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA318", "publisher": "Fray Diego de Landa, c. 1566; Spanish text copied from the Madrid manuscript and first printed by Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg, Paris, Auguste Durand, 1864", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The Spanish text of Landa as printed in the 1864 Paris bilingual edition, opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Registered secondary rather than primary on the edition's own evidence - the editor states in a footnote on page III that the Madrid manuscript he copied is not Landa's original but a copy made about thirty years after his death, that it appears incomplete, that the copyist unintentionally suppressed the chapter titles that divided it, and that he prints it with its faults, dividing it into small paragraphs himself. Pages opened - PP7, the half-title placing the work as volume three of the Collection de documents dans les langues indigenes and giving the Spanish title \"sacada de lo que escrivio el padre fray Diego de Landa\"; PP9, the full title page, Paris, Auguste Durand, 1864, with Bailly-Bailliere at Madrid; PA3, the French text of section I on Yucatan being mainland and not an island; PA317, the passage on the characters or letters with which these peoples wrote their antiquities and their sciences in their books, and the sentence that a great number of such books were found and all burned; PA318, Landa's Spanish on the sign list, with the engraved glyph cuts printed in the text, the worked examples of le, ha and ma in kati, the admission that the Maya wrote with three signs what the friars had made them understand were two letters, and his statement that he would not have set the matter down but to give a complete account of the things of this people." }, { "id": "brasseur-1864-landa-introduction", "title": "Introduction and editorial notes to Relation des choses de Yucatan de Diego de Landa", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=exorAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR3", "publisher": "Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg, Paris, Auguste Durand, 1864", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1864 editor's own matter, kept apart from the text he prints so that claims resting on it cannot inherit the text's standing. Reliability is low by design - the same introduction is a hundred and twelve page essay arguing that the primitive history of Mexico and of Egypt illuminate each other, and it is cited here only for what Brasseur did and saw, not for what he concluded. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-10 - PR3, page III, the statement that the relation was copied the previous winter in the archives of the Royal Academy of History at Madrid, and the footnote on the manuscript being a later, incomplete copy printed with its faults; PR4, page IV, that the manuscript holds the complete nomenclature of the Maya calendar signs, that Landa joined to them the signs of the alphabet, that this is the first key to the inscriptions still standing at Yucatan, Palenque and Copan, and that Brasseur had already matched all the calendar signs and about a dozen phonetic signs in the Dresden codex and in Codex mexicain no 2, reading words such as ahpop and ahau; PR112, page CXII, the last page of the introduction, on Carthaginian secrecy and classical notices of lands beyond the Atlantic; PA318, the editor's footnote answering his own text, that the learned and civilised world will hardly pardon the first Spanish religious this deplorable ignorance, and that the reproach is harder to press when one recalls the burning of the archives of the Chinese empire at the imperial palace of Peking by the soldiers of the English armies in the presence of those of France." }, { "id": "vitoria-relectiones-theologicae-lyon-1557", "title": "Reverendi Patris F. Francisci de Victoria, ordinis Praedicatorum, sacrae Theologiae in Salmanticensi Academia quondam primarij Professoris, Relectiones Theologicae XII in duos Tomos divisae. Tomus primus — relectio De Indis insulanis", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=qiGezVP4D2MC&pg=PA284", "publisher": "Francisco de Vitoria, O.P. (d. 1546); first printed edition, Lugduni (Lyon), apud Iacobum Boyerium, M.D.LVII (1557), cum privilegio Regis ad decennium. Full-view digitisation of a copy carrying a 1626 ownership note of the Dominican convent of San Tommaso at Pavia and the stamp DON. ALOYS. JERSEIENS. S.J.", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1557 Lyon sheets, opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Registered primary as an early-modern printed edition of the author's own lectures, and reliability is set below the tier for a reason the volume states itself: the title page calls Vitoria \"in Salmanticensi Academia quondam primarij Professoris\", formerly prime professor, so the printing postdates the teaching, and a relectio is a spoken lecture. Nothing in the sheets opened here says when it was delivered, whether the author was living when Boyer printed it, or from what copy the compositor worked, so every wording is attributed to the 1557 printing and not to the lecture hall. Pages opened - PA1, the title page with the Lyon 1557 imprint of Jacobus Boyerius and the decennial royal privilege; PA2, its verso listing the contents of each tome, the first containing De potestate ecclesiae prior and posterior, De potestate civili, De potestate concilii, De Indis prior, De Indis posterior sive de iure belli, and De matrimonio; PA284, part of the SVMMA printed at the head of the relectio, numbered items 24 to 35, including that the Indians were true owners publicly and privately before the Spaniards came, that the emperor is not lord of the whole world, that the pope is not civil or temporal lord of the whole world and has no temporal power over the barbarian Indians nor over other unbelievers, and that if the barbarians refuse to recognise any dominion of the pope war may not on that ground be made on them nor their goods seized; PA286, the division of the disputation into three parts and the opening objection that the whole enquiry is useless and idle because princes and their councillors are not bound to re-examine titles already deliberated and decreed; PA288-PA289, the answer to that objection - that in a doubtful matter the judgement of the learned is law, that one who acts in a doubtful matter against conscience sins even if the act is in itself licit, and that in the forum of conscience each must judge by probable reason or by the authority of the wiser; PA299-PA303, the propositions on dominion and unbelief, including \"Infidelitas non est impedimentum, quominus aliquis sit uerus dominus\", the argument from Thomas Aquinas that faith takes away neither natural nor human right and that dominions are therefore not removed by defect of faith, the verdict that the contrary is a manifest error and heretical, and that neither Saracens nor Jews may be despoiled on that ground; PA314-PA318, that no one was lord of the whole world by divine right and that the emperor is not lord of the world; PA324-PA328, the case for and then against papal temporal power, ending \"Ex quo patet, quod nec iste titulus est idoneus contra barbaros, uel quia papa dederit prouincias illas tanquam dominus absolute\"; PA349-PA353, the close of the illegitimate titles - \"unde si non essent alii tituli quam isti, profecto male consultum esset saluti principum\" - followed by the heading DE TITVLIS, QVIBVS barbari potuerint uenire in ditionem Hispanorum and its numbered summa, items 1 to 12, covering natural society and communication, the right to travel, dwell and trade without harm to the barbarians, the standing of children born there of Spanish parents, what may be done if the barbarians obstruct commerce, the case where security cannot otherwise be had except by occupying their cities and subjecting them, when the Spaniards may treat them as treacherous enemies and prosecute all the rights of war against them including deposing their lords and setting up new ones, the propagation of the Christian religion as a title, and that the barbarians are not to be warred on or deprived of their goods if they allow the Gospel to be preached freely, whether they receive the faith or not; PA364-PA368, the working out of the religion title, that if the business of religion cannot be procured otherwise it is lawful for the Spaniards to occupy their lands and provinces, create new lords and depose the old and prosecute the rights of war, with the express limits that the measure be kept, that more be remitted of one's own right than taken, that everything be directed rather to the advantage of the barbarians than to gain, and the warning from 1 Corinthians 6, \"Omnia mihi licet sed non omnia expediunt\", that such wars and plunder may hinder the conversion of the barbarians rather than advance it." }, { "id": "torquemada-monarquia-indiana-madrid-1723-tomo-iii", "title": "Tercera parte de los veinte i un libros rituales i Monarchia Indiana, con el origen y guerras de los Indios Ocidentales, de sus Poblaçones, Descubrimiento, Conquista, Conversion y otras cosas maravillosas de la mesma tierra", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=3lZfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA208", "publisher": "Fray Juan de Torquemada, O.F.M., minister provincial of the province of the Santo Evangelio de Mexico in New Spain; Madrid, en la Oficina y a costa de Nicolas Rodriguez Franco, 1723, con privilegio", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "Digitised sheets of the third tome of the 1723 Madrid printing, opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Reliability sits below the tier because this is plainly not the first setting of the text and no earlier one could be dated from the volumes reachable here; unlike some editions of its class the engraved title page makes no claim to have emended or enlarged the text and names no earlier edition, and the tome carries no editorial preface - the verso of the engraved title is blank and the index follows directly. Every wording is attributed here to the 1723 sheets. Printed folio numbers and Google page ids coincide exactly in this volume. Pages opened - PP7, the engraved title page with the Madrid 1723 imprint of Nicolas Rodriguez Franco and the motto DICO EGO OPERA MEA REGI; PP8, its blank verso; PP10-PP14, the INDICE DE LOS LIBROS Y CAPITULOS DE ESTE TERCERO TOMO, which begins at book fifteen and runs to book twenty-one; PA157-PA161, book sixteen chapter IX, the bull of Paul III on the baptism and marriage of the converts printed in full in Latin, opening \"Altitudo Divini Consilij\"; PA197-PA201, book sixteen chapter XXV, the chapter on the apostolic letters of Paul III that make the Indians capable of the sacraments against the opinion of those who held them incapable, with the Latin text of Veritas ipsa dated at Rome in 1537 and a Castilian translation printed after it; PA208-PA212, the opening of book seventeen, its argumento and chapters I and II on the ingenuity and skill of the Indians in every craft, on what they made before the Spaniards came, on the chapel of San Jose under Fray Pedro de Gante as the first and only seminary in New Spain for every kind of trade, and on how the Indians learned the mechanical offices; PA276-PA280, book seventeen chapter XXI, on the harm that followed when the three religious orders stopped meeting to advise the crown of the necessities of the Indians." }, { "id": "torquemada-monarquia-indiana-tomo-iii-untitled-printing", "title": "Los veinte i un libros rituales i Monarchia Indiana, third tome — a digitised copy lacking its title page", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Tl1dAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Fray Juan de Torquemada, O.F.M.; printing not identifiable from the copy, which begins at a blank flyleaf followed by the prologue to book fifteen", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "Opened on 2026-08-10 only as a control on the Madrid 1723 sheets, and registered so that the comparison can be cited rather than asserted. This copy carries the same third tome - the catchword at the foot of the page read is \"Tom. 3\" - in an evidently earlier typography, with long s and a different set of types, and it opens with a \"PROLOGO AL LIBRO QVINZE\" that the Madrid tome does not carry. Its front matter is gone: PP3 and PP4 are blank flyleaves and no title page, licence or colophon is served, so the printing cannot be dated from it and it is used here for one fact only - that a setting of this tome other than the Madrid one of 1723 exists and differs in its front matter. Reliability is low by design for that reason. Pages opened - PP1 and PP2, the binding and pastedown; PP3 and PP4, blank flyleaves; PP5, the opening of the prologue to book fifteen, on the order of St Francis; PP6 and PP7, its continuation." }, { "id": "puga-cedulario-mexico-1563", "title": "Prouisiones cedulas Instruciones de su Magestad: ordenanças de difuntos y audiencia, para la buena expedicion de los negocios, y administracion de justicia: y gouernacion desta nueua España: y para el buen tratamiento y conseruacion de los yndios, dende el año 1525 hasta este presente de 63", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=boEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Compiled by the doctor Vasco de Puga, oidor of the Real Audiencia of New Spain, by commission of the viceroy don Luis de Velasco; en Mexico en casa de Pedro Ocharte, M.D.LXIII. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The compilation of royal legislation for New Spain printed at Mexico in 1563, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Reliability is set below the tier for one reason the volume itself supplies: a manuscript note on a flyleaf of the digitised copy describes it as a facsimile edition published at Madrid, with a date read as 1945, so what was examined is most probably a twentieth-century photographic reproduction of the 1563 sheets rather than the sheets themselves. The reproduction is legible throughout and the title page and running heads are unambiguous. Pages opened and read - PP1, the binding; PP9, the flyleaf carrying the facsimile note; PA1, the title page, with the woodcut frame, the legend PHILIPPVS HISPANIARVM ET INDIARVM REX, the full title and the imprint EN MEXICO EN CASA De Pedro Ocharte M.D.LXIII; PA2-IA1, the leaf headed \"Comision para la impression\", dated at Mexico 3 March 1563, reciting the royal cedula ordering the collection, naming the doctor Vasco de Puga as the compiler charged with it, and commissioning the printing, signed by don Luis de Velasco and countersigned by Antonio de Turcios; PA65-IA1 and PA66, under the running head ANNO DE M.D.XXX, the royal order against enslaving Indians - the recital of the harms caused by the unbridled greed of the conquerors, the revocation and suspension of all licences to enslave Indians taken in war, the prohibition on acquiring by ransom, purchase or exchange Indians held as slaves by other Indians, the forfeiture and restitution penalties, the register of existing slaves to be drawn up by the local justices, and the date at Madrid on 2 August signed \"Yo la Reyna\" with the secretary Juan de Samano - followed immediately on the same folio by the grant to the Marques del Valle of twenty-three thousand vassals, with the list of towns and the grant of civil and criminal jurisdiction. Other folios, including those on mines and on the tribute, were located by full-text search and not read. Extended 2026-08-13: folios 13, 14, 20 and 74 opened and read - the order headed \"Tenedores y bienes de difunctos\" and its procedure (inventory, chest of three keys, sale in public almoneda, remittance by the first ship to the Casa de la Contratacion with the dead man's name, surname and home town), the passage under the running head for 1528 in which the Crown states that very few of the goods reach the heirs because of frauds and concealments, and the reissue of the same order for Nueva Galicia under the running head for 1531. The running heads on folios 13 and 14 read 1527 and 1526 respectively and no dating clause for the order appears on the folios opened." }, { "id": "cepeda-carrillo-relacion-desague-1637", "title": "Relacion universal legitima y verdadera del sitio en que esta fundada la muy noble, insigne, y muy leal Ciudad de Mexico... Ynundaciones que a padecido desde su Gentilidad. Remedios aplicados. Desagues propuestos, y emprendidos. Origen y fabrica del de Gueguetoca", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=2QhCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Dispuesta y ordenada por el licenciado don Fernando de Cepeda, relator de la Real Audiencia, y don Fernando Alfonso Carrillo, escrivano mayor del cabildo, de orden del virrey Marques de Cadereita; en Mexico, en la Imprenta de Francisco Salbago, 1637. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The official printed dossier on the drainage of the Valley of Mexico, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Reliability is set below the tier because the volume is an interested party's account: it was commissioned by the viceroy and compiled by two serving officers of the government whose conduct of the works and whose levies were the matter in dispute, and its mortality figures are the administration's own. Pages opened and read - PP5, the title page, with the full title, the scope from 1553 to 1637, the order of the Marques de Cadereita, the two compilers, the check by the oidor Juan de Albares Serrano and the Mexico imprint of Francisco Salbago; PA7-IA1, the petition of the fiscal Espinosa contradicting the desague, with the demand for fifteen thousand Indians for four continuous months, the length of nine to ten leagues, the depth of more than fifty estados, the calculation that fifty or sixty thousand Indians would have to be gathered to sustain the rotation, the forecast of failed sowings, famine and cocoliztle, the statement that the men working at the bottom of the trench would probably perish, and the appeal to the royal order keeping the naturales out of the mines because one Indian life is preferred to all the riches of the Indies; PA13, the viceregal survey with Enrico Martinez at the pass of Nochistongo, the total length of 14U850 varas, the eight hundred varas already open along an ancient acequia, the maximum depth of 37 varas, and the eighty Indians set for eight days to test the reported sink near Tesquiaque; PA19, with the marginal note \"Reconocese aver errado el socabon\", the masters' opinion on vaulting the tunnel under the Mexico to Zacatecas cart road, the inquiry with seven witnesses finding that more than sixty thousand Indians had worked and that deaths were ten or twelve by illness and about ten more in the shafts and tunnels, and the deposition of the alcaldes and principales attributing fifty deaths in the pueblo to cocoliztle rather than to the works. The appended sections carrying the accounts and later reports were located by full-text search and not read." }, { "id": "acosta-de-procuranda-salamanca-1588", "title": "De natura Noui Orbis libri duo, et De promulgatione Euangelii, apud barbaros, siue De procuranda Indorum salute libri sex", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=H7E31kVx8SsC&pg=PA117", "publisher": "Autore Iosepho Acosta presbytero societatis Iesu. Salmanticae, Apud Guillelmum Foquel, M.D.LXXXVIII. Full-view digitisation of a Rome copy (Jesuit and Biblioteca Nazionale stamps on the title page), Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1588 Salamanca sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Reliability sits below the tier for a reason generic to the genre rather than to this copy - a manual of missionary policy is a first-hand witness to what a Jesuit provincial printed as binding on the ministers and officers of Peru, and no witness at all to whether any of it was obeyed. No page opened records a case in which the rules on tribute or wages were enforced. Pages opened and read - PP3, the flyleaf with a modern pencil attribution; PP5, the title page with the Salamanca 1588 imprint of Guillelmus Foquel, the Jesuit IHS stamps and the Rome library stamp; PP6 and PP7, verso and blank; PP8; PP9, the second leaf of the royal privilege in Spanish, with the corrector's certification, the errata and the tasa; PA115, the proemium on the vulgar error of treating Indian matters as one thing and the statement of method; PA116, the choice to write with the Peruvians most in view and the reasons for it; PA117, the three classes of barbarians and the marks of the first; PA118, the Chinese and Japanese in the first class and the warning that force estranges; PA119, the second class, the Mexicans and Peruvians, and the quipu; PA120, the reach of the second class and what may and may not be done to it; PA121 and PA122, read to fix the chapter boundary; PA188 to PA192, book II, read to establish the running heads and the book divisions; PA241 to PA245, book II; PA302 to PA305, book III, the chapters on tribute; PA340 to PA342, book III, the chapters on wages and on personal service." }, { "id": "cieza-cronica-del-peru-sevilla-1553", "title": "Parte primera de la chronica del Peru. Que tracta la demarcacion de sus prouincias: la descripcion dellas. Las fundaciones de las nueuas ciudades. Los ritos y costumbres de los indios. Y otras cosas estrañas dignas de ser sabidas", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=PpNbAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Fecha por Pedro d Cieça de Leon vezino de Seuilla. 1553. Con priuillegio Real. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The first edition of 1553, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. The title page carries the year and the grant of royal privilege but no printer's name, so nothing is asserted here about who set the type. Reliability sits below the tier because the author is a participant describing the regime he served - the privilege printed four leaves later recites that he served the crown with his arms, his horse and his estate in the wars, conquests and discoveries of Peru, and the book is dedicated to the heir to the throne. Pages opened and read - PP5 and PP6, binding and flyleaf; PP7, the title page with the royal arms, the full title, the year 1553 and the words Con priuillegio Real; PP8; PP9, the privilege granted by the prince at Monzon on 14 September 1552 for fifteen years, signed Yo el principe and countersigned Juan Vazquez; PP10; PP11, the opening of the dedication to Prince Philip; PP12; PP13, the Prohemio del author, on leaving Spain before thirteen, seventeen years in the Indies, and the sources of the book; PP14, the remaining motives and the division into four parts; PP15, the third and fourth parts described; PR97 and PR97-IA1, folio xcvij; PR98 and PR98-IA1, folio xcviij, the tambos of Guamachuco, the consumption of the people of that province in the past wars, the two royal roads and the heading of capitulo lxxxij; PR99 and PR99-IA1, folio xcix, the aposentos and depositos at four-league intervals, the quipu accounting, the upkeep of the road, the war made in the Conchucos by Francisco de Chaues, the general rising, and the reason the Indians themselves gave for it; PR102 and PR102-IA1, folio cij, capitulo lxxxv on the road from Xauxa to Guamanga, the bridge at Angoyaco, the tribute depot at Pucara and the author's night spent on the rock there.\nPages added 2026-08-16: PR49-IA1, folio xlix, the two staples named besides maize - the papa \"a manera de turmas de tierra\" which after cooking is \"tan tierno por de dentro como castaña cozida\" and grows underground as the truffle does, and the quinua with the leaf of bledo morisco, the plant nearly \"vn estado de hombre\", the very small seed \"della es blanca y della es colorada\", made into brews and eaten boiled \"como nosotros el arroz\" - followed on the same page by the note that many of the natives subject to Quito, \"conosciendo el prouecho y vtilidad del trigo y de la ceuada\", sow and eat both." }, { "id": "rockwell-1851-spanish-and-mexican-law", "title": "A Compilation of Spanish and Mexican Law, in Relation to Mines, and Titles to Real Estate, in Force in California, Texas and New Mexico; and in the Territories Acquired under the Louisiana and Florida Treaties, when Annexed to the United States. Volume I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=4qUJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR1", "publisher": "By John A. Rockwell, Counsellor at Law; New-York: John S. Voorhies, Law Bookseller and Publisher, 1851. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The first edition, New York 1851, read as page scans on 2026-08-10 and 2026-08-16. It is a primary document of the American reception of Spanish and Mexican law - the object it states for itself is to aid the decision of land and mine title questions arising under Spanish grants in territory ceded to the United States - and it is at best a derivative witness to the Spanish originals, which it prints only in English translation taken in part from the earlier English versions of Heathfield and Thompson. Claims about Spanish legal texts drawn from it are worded as what this volume prints, and carry confidence below 0.9 for that reason. Pages opened and read 2026-08-10 - PR1, the title page with the Voorhies imprint and the statement of contents; PR3, PR4, PR5, PR6, the tables of contents of the Royal Ordinances of 1783, showing the chapter structure through Chapter VIII; PA7, the preface stating the object of the work; PA49, Chapter V sections I to III on the ownership of mines, the grant to subjects, and forfeiture for failure to work; PA50, Chapter VI sections I to IV on the discoverer's pertenencias, who is not a discoverer, the written statement to the Deputation, the register, the notices affixed for general notoriety, and the ninety-day pit; PA52, Chapter VI sections IX to XIII on the sixty days for taking possession, loss of the denouncer's right, forfeiture for non-observance of the Ordinances, and payment to the former possessor for works left in the mine; PA55, the close of Chapter VI section XXII on quicksilver and Chapter VII sections I and II on who may and may not hold mines; PA74, the chapter on the workmen - the rayador's written account of wages, the assignment of tasks, the grievance procedure before the Mining Deputation, and section IX on the Indians of repartimiento with the compiler's footnote defining them against free Indians. Further pages opened and read 2026-08-16, on the land-title half of the volume - PA426 and PA429, the instructions prepared in the General Land Office for William Carey Jones as confidential agent, signed J. Butterfield, Commissioner, with the covering letter of the Department of the Interior of 12 July 1849; PA492, the head of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with its ratification and proclamation dates; PA497, articles VIII and IX of the treaty in full; and PA509 to PA513, the act of the 2d session of the 31st Congress to ascertain and settle the private land claims in the State of California, sections 1 to 15." }, { "id": "halleck-1859-mining-laws-of-spain-and-mexico", "title": "A Collection of Mining Laws of Spain and Mexico", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=yLAiXg-23FYC&pg=PR1", "publisher": "Compiled and translated by H. W. Halleck, A.M., Counsellor at Law; San Francisco: O'Meara & Painter, Printers, 132 Clay Street, 1859. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The first edition, San Francisco 1859, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Primary for the American reception and for the compiler's own account of his method and of the state of the sources; derivative for the Spanish texts, which appear here in a translation the compiler himself warns may contain errors \"equally glaring\" to those he corrects in his predecessors. Pages opened and read 2026-08-10 - PR1, the title page with the O'Meara & Painter imprint; PR3, the first page of the preface, on the code as a distinct branch of jurisprudence, on why it had become a matter of special interest in the United States, and on the division of the work by the Old Code of 1563 and the New Code of 1584 with its commentators; PR4, the second page, on the Ordinances of 22 May 1783 for the mining of New Spain and their subsequent enforcement in other Spanish-American countries, on Velasquez de Leon's commentary, on the admitted incompleteness of Parts IV and V, and on the appended Peruvian ordinances of 1785-6; PR5, the close of the preface, on Heathfield and Thompson, on the near-literal method, on the glossary taken from Gamboa and Escriche, and the dating \"San Francisco, April, 1859\"." }, { "id": "white-1839-new-collection-of-laws", "title": "A New Collection of Laws, Charters and Local Ordinances of the Governments of Great Britain, France and Spain, Relating to the Concessions of Land in their Respective Colonies; Together with the Laws of Mexico and Texas on the Same Subject. To Which is Prefixed Judge Johnson's Translation of Azo and Manuel's Institutes of the Civil Law of Spain. Volume I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=UIkVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1", "publisher": "By Joseph M. White, Counsellor at Law, and late Delegate in the Congress of the United States; Philadelphia: T. & J. W. Johnson, Law Booksellers, 1839. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The first edition, Philadelphia 1839, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Primary for the fact and the wording of the American printing; derivative for Castilian law, which reaches this volume through two removals - the institutional treatise of Asso and de Manuel, and Judge Johnson's English translation of it - and whose own authorities, the Fuero Real and the Recopilacion, were not opened for this corpus. Claims are therefore worded as what this volume prints, with confidence below 0.9. Pages opened and read 2026-08-10 - PR1, the title page with the T. & J. W. Johnson imprint and the statement that Johnson's translation of the Institutes is prefixed; PA53, Title VII on the husband's duties toward the dote, the bar on alienating or misspending it, and the wife's right to require security and an allowance of aliment; PA61, the section on ganancial property - marriage as a society whose gains are equally divided, the definition of bienes de ganancias, the exclusion of what is acquired by lucrative title, the presumption that property is common until proved separate, absolute dominion in each moiety on division, and losses shared as gains are." }, { "id": "paschal-digest-of-the-laws-of-texas-1866", "title": "A Digest of the Laws of Texas: Containing Laws in Force, and the Repealed Laws on which Rights Rest. Carefully Annotated", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=HaZXAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR1", "publisher": "By George W. Paschal, of Austin, Texas; Galveston: published by S. S. Nichols; New York: Banks & Brothers; Washington, D.C.: W. H. & O. H. Morrison, 1866. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1866 edition, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. An official compilation - the executive approval of A. J. Hamilton, Provisional Governor of Texas, dated Austin 30 August 1865, is bound in - and therefore primary for what Texas law was held to be and for the annotator's citations of decisions of the Supreme Court of Texas. Its reports of Castilian and Mexican law are second-hand, and its statements of what Spanish jurisprudence held are treated here as claims of a Texas lawyer in 1866 rather than as readings of the Castilian sources. Pages opened and read 2026-08-10 - PR1, the title page with the Nichols and Banks & Brothers imprints; PR2, the approval of Provisional Governor Hamilton of 30 August 1865 and the copyright entry of 1866; PR3, the preface on why the digest was made and on Spanish laws and session acts not being accessible to the bar; PA773, the opening of the title on Marital Rights, article 4632 on marriage stipulations, and note 1040 quoting Burr v. Wilson that the marital-rights laws of Texas are a continuation of Spanish jurisprudence; PA774 and PA775, the conflicts-of-law annotation on matrimonial domicile, tacit mortgage and Louisiana judgments, the holding that the common law was never in force in Texas as to marital rights, the act of 18 March 1848, and article 4640 making a married female under twenty-one of full age with its note tracing the rule to laws 47 and 48 of Toro; PA776, article 4641 on the separate property of each spouse with the husband's sole management, the repealed sections 3 and 4 of the act of 20 January 1840 defining the common property of husband and wife and its division on dissolution, and the annotation quoting Cartwright v. Hollis on preserving the Spanish rules of matrimonial partnership, together with the run of decisions on enslaved people as separate or community property." }, { "id": "montalvo-vida-betancur-1683", "title": "Vida admirable y muerte preciosa del venerable hermano Pedro de S. Ioseph Betancur, fundador de la Compañia Bethlemitica en las Yndias Occidentales", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=L_RJmewk6jMC&pg=PA3", "publisher": "Compuesta por el doctor don Francisco Antonio de Montalvo, natural de Sevilla, del Orden de S. Antonio de Viena, y dedicada a la real magestad de la reyna madre doña Maria Ana de Austria; en Roma, por Nicolas Angel Tinassi, impresor cameral, MDCLXXXIII. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The first edition, Rome 1683, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Reliability is set well below the tier because of what the book is: a devotional life of a candidate for canonisation, written sixteen years after its subject died, by an author who never met him, dedicated to the queen mother, and printed at Rome while the cause and the order's status were both being pressed there. It is a strong primary witness to what the Bethlemites and their advocates were saying about themselves in 1683 and to the documents it reprints, and a weak witness to anything miraculous or edifying it reports about the man. Claims drawn from it are worded as what this volume states, and none is set above 0.9. Pages opened and read 2026-08-10 - PP1 to PP4, binding and blank flyleaves; PA1, the engraved frontispiece by B. Thiboust after Carlo Ascentii, Romae sua permissu, with the title in script and an indigenous American figure, a crowned monarch bearing the arms of Castile and Leon, and silver coin at the foot; PA3, the letterpress title page with the Tinassi imprint and the dedication to the queen mother Mariana of Austria; RA1-PA1, the opening of Libro primero, capitulo primero, \"Patria, y Padres del Venerable Hermano Pedro de San Ioseph\", stating his birth on the island of Tenerife; RA1-PA46, the close of the chapter siting the hospital by the walls of Nuestra Señora de Santa Cruz and its Indian parish administered by Dominicans, and the opening of capitulo XI, \"De la pobreça con que el Venerable Hermano dio principio a la fundacion del Hospital\", on the casita that had served to teach the children near the Calvario and had since become house, church and hospital without losing the name casita; RA1-PA359, in an appended memorial addressed to the king, the account of the brothers' public school - Christian doctrine, serving at Mass, reading, writing and counting, taught without charging any stipend, more than two hundred children then in it, and the poor of the neighbourhood begging at the door of the hospice at midday. Other pages, including RA5-PP5 and RA1-PA39, were located by full-text search and not opened." }, { "id": "bullarium-bethlemitarum-1773", "title": "Bullarium latino-hispanicum Ord. Fratrum Bethlemitarum in Indiis Occidentalibus, in quo comprehenduntur omnes apostolicae litterae a summis pontificibus editae ab anno 1672 usque ad annum 1773", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=NjQQzfaE8rwC&pg=PP3", "publisher": "Dedicated by Francisco Xavier de Santa Theresa, prefecto general of the order, to cardinal Francisco Xaverio de Zelada, protector of the Bethlemite order; Romae, typis Reverendae Camerae Apostolicae, MDCCLXXIII, superiorum facultate. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1773 Rome edition, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. It prints the apostolic letters in Latin with a facing Spanish column, and is primary for the text of the bulls and of the statutes as the order printed them. Reliability is set below 1.0 for one reason the volume states itself: it was compiled by the order from the order's own archive, so what it selects and what it omits are the order's choices, and the Spanish column is the compiler's rendering rather than an independent text. Pages opened and read 2026-08-10 - PP3, the title page with the Camera Apostolica imprint and the range 1672 to 1773; PP5, the dedication of Francisco Xavier de Santa Theresa, prefecto general, to cardinal Zelada, describing the contents as the bulls and apostolic letters issued to institute, enlarge and honour the Bethlemite religion together with the resolutions of the sacred congregations on doubts referred to the Holy See; PP6, the statement of why it was printed - the documents until then shut in the order's archives were gathered into one body and given to the press to preserve them from decay and dust and chiefly so that the order's own religious could know their municipal law and the obligations of their institute; PP10, the engraved plate signed J. F. sculp. Romae anno 1763 with the legend recording that Fr. Petrus a S. Iosepho de Betancur founded the order of Bethlemite hospitallers in the West Indies and died at Goathemala on 25 April 1667; PA1, the opening of the bull of Clement X of 2 May 1672 confirming the first statutes of the Bethlemite brothers, with the insertion of the statutes and the petition of Rodrigo de la Cruz, hermano mayor; PA13, the bull's provisions on searching private houses and hostelries of the city for convalescents, carrying them to the hospital in a sedan chair by the brothers themselves, and the admission rule limited to Christian and Catholic men of every nation, state and condition, noble and plebeian, free and slave, white and black, with women excluded from the hospital and to be relieved outside it; PA14, the rule that Indians and Blacks be admitted to a separate infirmary, and the requirement that the infirmarian enter and sign in a book the name, surname, birthplace and day and year of entry of every convalescent; PA39, the recital that the constitutions were in the greater part drawn from the institution left by the venerable brother Pedro de San Joseph de Bettancur, first founder of the hospital of poor convalescents of the city of Guatemala under the invocation of the blessed Virgin Mary of Bethlehem, and chapter I on the end of the company; PA48, chapter VI section 3 that no kind of person is to be excluded from the hospital, the arms of charity to be extended to free, slaves, Moors and Gentiles, women excepted and barred from entering either to convalesce or to visit, section 4 on beds and the washing of feet, and the opening of chapter VII on the infirmaries for convalescents, incurables and poor travellers; PA49, the requirement of infirmaries for the Spaniards separate from those of the Indians, Blacks and other nations, all of them kept apart from the service rooms, with the rules on weekly changes of linen and on transferring a convalescent who relapses to another hospital. Pages PA21, PA72, PA80, PA96, PA197 and PA198 were located by full-text search and not opened." }, { "id": "bartolache-mercurio-volante-1772", "title": "Mercurio volante, con noticias importantes i curiosas sobre varios asuntos de fisica i medicina, por D. Josef Ignacio Bartolache, doctor medico del claustro de esta Real Universidad de Mexico", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=_q1jAP-UEgQC&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Mexico City, 1772-1773. A bound set of the original numbers, beginning with numero 1 of Saturday 17 October 1772. The copy digitised carries the ownership stamp of Francisco del Paso y Troncoso. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The original sheets of the paper, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Primary for what Bartolache printed at Mexico City in 1772 and for nothing else: the paper argues its own case, several of its pieces are memoirs sent in by correspondents who are not named, and it is dedicated to the sitting viceroy, so it is weak evidence for anything it asserts about the state of medicine or about the reception of what it printed. Reliability is held at 0.85 rather than higher for one further reason - no title page, licence leaf or colophon was found in the volume, PP1 being a blank binding leaf, so the printer and the place of printing are not confirmed from any page opened here and are not claimed. Pages opened and read 2026-08-10 - PA1, numero 1, Sabado 17 de Octubre de 1772, the masthead, the author line naming him doctor medico of the cloister of the Real Universidad de Mexico, the heading PLAN DE ESTE PAPEL PERIODICO, the epigraph from Ovid Metamorphoses I with the author's own Spanish verse rendering, and the opening on our America Setentrional; PA2, on the university founded in 1553 and endowed by Charles V, on the public schools frequented by the youth of America, on the preponderance of theology and jurisprudence over medicine, philosophy, belles lettres and the liberal arts, and the sentence placing the sciences and arts as successors to the barbarie e ignorancia de los Indios; PA3, on Indianos of instruction in one and the other America, on the difficulty of printing cheaply and the misteriosa ceremonia by which everything scientific had to appear in Latin, and on the Americas owing their lights to Spain and to cultivated Europe; PA6, the explanation of the title from the fable of Mercury, the undertaking to appear every Wednesday, the day the posts of the kingdom leave the capital, the refusal to keep the superstitious respect for Latin and Greek authors, and the invitation to any man of letters to send in matter worth publishing carriage paid; PA9, numero 2, Miercoles 28 de Octubre de 1772, dedicated to the viceroy Frei Don Antonio Maria Bucareli i Ursua, headed VERDADERA IDEA DE LA BUENA FISICA, i de su grande utilidad, with an epigraph from Lucretius De rerum natura II; PA10, the statement that he writes for those who are not sujetos de carrera and for what we call the vulgo, and the sentence on women as a sex iniquamente abandonado i despreciado como inutil para las Ciencias; PA41, numero 6, Miercoles 25 de Noviembre de 1772, AVISOS ACERCA DEL MAL HYSTERICO, QUE LLAMAN latido, with an epigraph from Aeneid IV and the opening on the diseases of women as perhaps two thirds of the plagues afflicting humanity; PA114, a memoir sent in by an anonymous correspondent on anatomy and mechanics as the basis of the art of healing, with the editor's note that he had at first been afraid to publish a subject exposed to dissension among certain practitioners. Pages PA17, PA25, PA33, PA42, PA43, PA48, PA49, PA57, PA81, PA91, PA93, PA97, PA115 to PA118, PA120, PA121, PA123 and PA124 were located by full-text search and not opened. Reopened 2026-08-16 and further pages read as scans that day. PA50 and PA51, the covering letter of a parish priest signing \"N.**\" announcing \"un Cazique discreto, i no nada crítico\", naming D. Pasqual Reyes, \"aquel ladino que hacía de Fiscal en este Curato, quando entré yo aqui, el año de 62\", listing the offices he had held (Maestro de Escuela, Escribano de República, Alcalde, Gobernador, Fiscal), the sentence \"La Naturaleza, que no se desdeña de tener hijos Indios, le repartió una buena dosi de racionalidad\", the admission \"Yo, despues de enmendar una ù otra expresion baja i trivial, le animé à la empresa\", and the heading \"CARTA DE D. PASQUAL\" with the account of buying the first sheets in Mexico and having his student son post the rest; PA52, the reparos on numeros 1 and 2, including the answer to the paper's own excuse about light entering America - \"Pero hai aqui buenos muchachos, i si les enseñaran como allá, havían de salir mejores con tercio i quinto, i les havian de ganar à los Franceses\" - and the remarks on Aristotle and on Newton; PA53, the temazcalli paragraph (the thermometer, the two baths rented \"à las Parídas del Pueblo\", the miracles and the patients who \"quedan peores\", the natural temazcallis at the Peñol); PA55, the reparos on the carding machines and on the pipiltzintlis; PA56, the close of the letter \"En este Pueblo à 22. de Noviembre de 1772\" signed \"Pasqual Angeles de los Reies\", the editor's NOTA declaring \"à mi se me trasluce algo de supercheria\", the announcement of the next number \"Uso i abuso del Pulque para curar enfermedades\", and - correcting the caution recorded above - a colophon: \"EN MEXICO CON LAS LICENCIAS NECESARIAS, i privilegio concedido al Autor por este Superior Gobierno, en casa de D. Felipe de Zúñiga i Ontiveros, calle de la Palma\", sold \"en el Cajoncillo de Libros frente del Portal nuevo de Mercaderes, à medio real cada Pliego\". The printer and place of printing are therefore confirmed from page 56 as of 2026-08-16. Also read that day: PA65, the masthead of \"N. 9. Miercoles 23. de Diciembre de 772\" with the heading \"PROSIGUE LA HISTORIA DEL PULQUE\" and the description of the tinacal and of the bull-hide vats dressed with slaked lime and seeded with strong pulque as ferment; and PA79, the evaporation of tavern pulque to about an ounce of glutinous dark extract \"mui semejante à la cola, hecha de pieles maceradas i podridas\", the invitation \"Quien quisiere certificarse mas, haga la experiencia\", and the ANOTACIONES on whether the medicinal virtue resides in the sediment and on the lime used in the process." }, { "id": "apendice-diccionario-universal-1855-cochinilla", "title": "The articles COCHINILLA MIXTECA and COCHINILLA in the Apendice al Diccionario universal de historia y de geografia, coleccion de articulos relativos a la Republica Mexicana, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=7ITVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA588", "publisher": "Recogidos y coordinados por el Lic. D. Manuel Orozco y Berra, with articles by Jose Maria Andrade, Bernardo Couto, Joaquin Garcia Icazbalceta, Jose Maria Lafragua, Miguel Lerdo de Tejada, Manuel Orozco y Berra, Manuel Payno, Francisco Pimentel, Guillermo Prieto, Jose Fernando Ramirez, Ignacio Rayon, Francisco Zarco and others; Mexico, imprenta de J. M. Andrade y F. Escalante, 1855. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "A Mexican scholarly compilation of 1855, not a general encyclopedia article: the tomo is the eighth of the work and the first of the Mexican appendix, and its contributors are the leading Mexican historians and men of letters of the generation. Registered as secondary because it is a compilation written two to three generations after the events it describes, and it names its own sources for this article - Caldas's third memoir published in the continuation of the Semanario de la Nueva Granada, itself an extract of instructions sent to Bogota by the viceroy Bucareli; Humboldt, libro IV chapter X of the Ensayo politico; number 26 of Los ocios; and, for the zoological description, the Compendio elemental de zoologia published in 1854 by Pio Bustamante Rocha, professor of the seminario de mineria and of the escuela especial de agricultura. None of those was opened for this object, so the claims are worded as what this compilation states. Title page read at PP7. Pages opened and read 2026-08-10 - PA588, the article COCHINILLA MIXTECA on the hemipteran order, the metamorphoses, the uses of other scale insects for lac and for kermes, the statement that Oaxaca is at present almost the only province of Mexico and of the world that cultivates the fine cochineal though Puebla and Nueva Galicia formerly did, and the preparation of the nopal ground; PA589, the planting of the nopal cuttings and the tuna de Castilla, the nests of paxtles magueitos holding twenty to twenty-five mothers each, the enemies of the insect and the practice of taming a bird of prey to frighten the others, and the tlasole described by one of the practitioners whose instructions Caldas consulted; PA590, the custom of the indios nopaleros near Oaxaca of carrying the mothers nine leagues to the sierra in baskets to escape the rains, the yields at Nejapa and Zimatlan, the several ways of killing the insect and the trade names jaspeada, denegrida and negra, the adulteration of the powder, the statement that the greater part of the cochineal entering commerce was supplied by the small nopal plots of the Indians, the export figure of 4,000 sobornales or 32,000 arrobas from Oaxaca, and the naming of the sources used; PA591, the article COCHINILLA on the name grana and the old error of taking it for a fruit, the reference to the memoir written in 1777 by Jose Antonio Alzate and printed in the third tome of his gacetas, the long quotation from Bustamante Rocha on coccus cacti, and the remark that the product was by then not as considerable as formerly." }, { "id": "apendice-diccionario-universal-1855-bartolache", "title": "The article BARTOLACHE (D. Jose Ignacio) in the Apendice al Diccionario universal de historia y de geografia, coleccion de articulos relativos a la Republica Mexicana, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=7ITVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343", "publisher": "Signed R. I. A. at its close; recogidos y coordinados por el Lic. D. Manuel Orozco y Berra; Mexico, imprenta de J. M. Andrade y F. Escalante, 1855. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The biographical article, read at PA343 and PA344 on 2026-08-10. Registered separately from the cochineal articles in the same volume because it is a different author, signed with the initials R. I. A., and a different kind of text - a life written sixty-five years after its subject died, warmly partisan for him against the schoolmen, and citing a document only once, when it quotes Alzate's historical eulogy of Bartolache. Reliability is set at 0.7 accordingly, and the claims drawn from it are worded as what this article states. It gives the birth at Guanajuato on 30 March 1739 of very poor parents, the patron who brought him to Mexico, San Ildefonso and the peripatetic philosophy, the Seminario Conciliar where he put the neglected library in order and was rewarded with a beca, the reading of Melchor Cano and the expulsion from the college that left him without bread, the intervention of Velazquez de Leon and of the Osorio family, the substitution in the chair of mathematics when Velazquez de Leon went on commission to the Californias, the failure of the academia de ciencias naturales set up under the viceroy marques de Croix in which he had been named professor of chemistry at four thousand pesos, the post of simple official in the contaduria of the mint and the rise to ensayador y apartador general, the introduction of iron in medicine and the pastillas de Bartolache of the Mexican pharmacopoeia, the observation of the transit of Venus made with Alzate and reprinted at Paris by order of the Academy, Alzate's printed denial of any rivalry between them, the death on 9 June 1790 at fifty-one, and a list of his works - Lecciones matematicas printed at Mexico in 1769, Instruccion para la cura de las viruelas, the Observaciones astronomicas del paso de Venus por el disco del sol, and the posthumous Opusculo Guadalupano. The article does not mention the Mercurio volante at all, which is recorded in the object as a fact about the article." }, { "id": "apendice-diccionario-universal-1855-anil", "title": "The article ANIL in the Apendice al Diccionario universal de historia y de geografia, coleccion de articulos relativos a la Republica Mexicana, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=7ITVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA214", "publisher": "Recogidos y coordinados por el Lic. D. Manuel Orozco y Berra; Mexico, imprenta de J. M. Andrade y F. Escalante, 1855. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "Read at PA214, PA215 and PA216 on 2026-08-10. What the 1855 compilers printed under this head is not an article of their own but a memoir in the first person by an eighteenth century Mexican writer, who opens by saying that in 1772 he printed, in translation, in the periodical he was then publishing under the title of Asuntos varios, a memoir on the benefit of indigo drawn up by a missionary of Louisiana. The editor of the Asuntos varios sobre ciencias y artes of 1772 was Jose Antonio Alzate, and the internal evidence fits him, but no signature or attribution was found on the three pages opened and the identification is carried in the object as an inference at reduced confidence. The text is later than 1789, since it quotes the Gaceta de Madrid of that year. Reliability is set at 0.7 because the memoir is an interested piece of advocacy - its explicit purpose is to answer those who say that the Spanish nation only vegetates - and because the 1855 compilers say nothing about where they took it from or whether they abridged it. Contents of the pages read: the unknown state of indigo cultivation in New Spain until about 1754 and the arrival of Andres de San Julian, a surgeon whom the writer takes for a Frenchman though he passed for a Catalan, who had seen the cultivation in the foreign islands and planted it in the Amilpas, and whose life was miserable and whose plan he never realised; the seeds having to be got out of a hard tube with the help of indios and indias grinding them on chocolate metates until the brothers Antonio and Jose Valdovinos of Cuernavaca had them milled in a tannery tahona, so that what had cost sixteen or twenty pesos cost two or three reales; Jose de Azcarate of the hacienda de Guadalupe near Cuernavaca sowing the seed through a tube fixed to a bag so that one workman sowed in an hour more than twelve enslaved men sowed in the islands in a whole day; the comparison with the practice reported by Beauvais de Raseau, whose memoir the Paris academy had approved; the writer's polemic against los ingratos que profieren el que la nacion espanola solo vegeta and against varios pretendidos de sabios; the lime water precipitation learned from a colonist who had worked in Carolina, confirmed out of books lent by Juan Eugenio Santelices Pablo, and the claim that if the cheese rennet method reported from Peru held good the Spanish nation should be recognised as the inventor of a happy discovery; the four cements for stopping the cracks of the indigo tanks and the suggestion that they be used on the water conduits of Tlaxpana and Chapultepec; and the closing warning that sowing indigo on land that had carried sugar cane, or in the gardens of Cuernavaca, is pernicious because it reduces the crop of sugar, maize and other seeds." }, { "id": "barrios-verdadera-medicina-1607", "title": "Verdadera medicina, cirvgia, y astrologia, en tres libros dividida, por el Doctor Ihoan de Barrios natural de Colmenar Viejo", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=eGzHUh0j_yMC&pg=PP15", "publisher": "Con licencia y priuilegio, ympreso en Mexico. Por Fernando Balli. Año 1607. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1607 Mexico sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-10 through the anchored click3 page-image route. Reliability sits below the tier because the book is an argument as well as a record - the title announces that it writes against a named surgeon of Seville and against some astrologers - and because its therapeutic content is Galenic and astrological medicine, so its value as evidence is what it shows about what was printed, licensed and sold in Mexico City, not about what worked. Pages opened and read - PP13, the blank verso carrying the title in bleed-through; PP15, the title page with the three-book contents, the Fernando Balli imprint and the year 1607; PP17, the approbations, by Doctor Hieronymo de Herrera, protomedico of the kingdom and dean of the faculty of medicine of the Real Universidad, by Doctor Ioan de Contreras, cathedratico de prima de medicina, dated Mexico 21 January 1606, and by Doctor Alonso Muñoz, dated 10 June 1606; RA1-PA20, printed page 20, the treatment of tertian fevers set out as a dialogue; RA2-PA1, the opening of the third book on the anatomy of the womb; RA3-PA17, printed page 36, on toothache, including the author's report of a remedy he tried that failed and of a tooth-drawer he watched in a Madrid square in 1586; RA3-PT1, a page of the index of remedies arranged by complaint, in which the drugs are Mexican plants named in Nahuatl and dosed in reales." }, { "id": "duran-historia-indias-nueva-espana-1867", "title": "Historia de las Indias de Nueva-España y islas de Tierra Firme, por el padre fray Diego Duran, religioso de la Orden de Predicadores (escritor del siglo XVI), tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=b9wCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1", "publisher": "La publica con un atlas de estampas, notas e ilustraciones, Jose F. Ramirez. Mexico: Imprenta de J. M. Andrade y F. Escalante, Bajos de San Agustin num. 1, 1867. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The editio princeps of a manuscript finished in 1579 and 1581 and left unprinted for nearly three centuries, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Two voices are kept distinct in this corpus - Duran's sixteenth-century text, which reaches the reader here through a nineteenth-century transcription rather than through the manuscript, and Jose Fernando Ramirez's 1867 introduction, which is a primary witness to its own editorial judgements and no more. Pages opened and read - PR1, the title page with the Mexico 1867 imprint of Andrade y Escalante; PR5, printed page V of the introduction, on the rival attributions of the author's birthplace and Ramirez's own conclusion; PR15, printed page XV, on the erased authorship line of the manuscript, its recovery by Gonzalez de Vera, the 1579 colophon of the calendar treatise, the decision to split the printing into two volumes and the editor's account of his own circumstances; PA1 and PA2, printed pages 1 and 2, the opening chapter, on his use of native paintings and of old informants, on his suspicion that the peoples of the land descend from the ten tribes of Israel, and on the great mortality, with the editor's footnote disputing the date." }, { "id": "lagunas-arte-y-dictionario-facsimile-1983", "title": "Arte y dictionario con otras obras en lengua Michuacana, compuesto por Fray Juan Baptista de Lagunas (Mexico, en casa de Pedro Balli, 1574) - facsimile with a historical introduction", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Af4aAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Fimax Publicistas Editores, Morelia, Michoacan, 1983, opening the series Fuentes de la lengua tarasca o purepecha. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "A modern volume that reproduces the 1574 sheets photographically and prefaces them with an editorial presentation and a documented historical introduction. It is registered as secondary rather than primary on purpose - what was opened here is a 1983 photographic reproduction of the imprint, not the imprint, and the leaves could not be collated against an original - so every object citing it is capped at secondary. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-10 - PR3, the modern half-title with the 1574 title showing through the leaf; PR9, the presentation, on the series, on the book being very little known, and on the contested naming of the language, quoting the Relacion de Michoacan on the origin of the word tarasco; PR15, printed page XI of the historical introduction, on Lagunas at Tzintzuntzan and Tarecuato, the approbation of December 1570, the episcopal licence of 29 October 1571, his transfer to Guayangareo by June 1573 and the baptismal-font dispute; PR23, printed page XXIII, the notes to that introduction, citing Archivo General de Indias, Justicia leg. 178, and recording the first reprint by Nicolas Leon at Morelia in 1890; PA1, printed page 1 of the 1574 imprint, the woodcut and the heading in the language itself." }, { "id": "remesal-historia-chiapa-guatemala-1620", "title": "Historia general de las Indias Ocidentales, y particular de la Gouernacion de Chiapa, y Guatemala. Escriuese juntamente los principios de la Religion de Nuestro Glorioso Padre Santo Domingo, y de las demas Religiones, por el presentado fray Antonio de Remesal, de la Orden de Predicadores de la Prouincia de España", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=c0FSAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "En Madrid, por Francisco de Abarca y Angulo. Año M.DC.XX. Full-view digitisation of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1620 Madrid sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-10 through the anchored click3 page-image route. The volume carries no OCR layer - SearchWithinVolume returns zero results for terms that are plainly on the pages - so it was navigated by sampling and by the Tabla de los Capitulos at the end, and the Google page identifiers do not track the printed foliation exactly (the pid PA732 serves printed page 722). Printed page numbers below are those in the running heads. Reliability sits well below the tier and should stay there - this is a Dominican's history of his own province, written under the patronage of the president of the Audiencia who supplied the papers, and its last books are obituary and miracle narrative rather than history; it is strong evidence of what a friar in 1620 put in print and of the documents he says he read, and weak evidence for the sanctity and the motives it attributes. Pages opened and read - PP7, the title page with the Abarca y Angulo imprint and the year M.DC.XX; PP9, the commendatory sonnet by Alonso Geronimo de Salas Barbadillo; PP13, the dedication to Antonio Peraza de Ayala, Castilla y Rojas, Conde de la Gomera, president of the Audiencia of Guatemala; PP17, the prologue, on the archive of the city of Santiago, the two journeys through New Spain, the libros de Cabildo, the refusal to print a catalogue of sources, and the royal provision of 3 June 1573 followed for the ordering of events; printed pages 150 and 151, Libro III cap. XX, on the Arte of the Mame language printed at Mexico in 1607, the licence given to Las Casas to go to Spain, the original letter of the Adelantado Alvarado in the archive of San Salvador, the effect of Alvarado's return on the naturales, and the author's reading of a passage of the printed Brevisima relacion; printed page 260, the 1545 journey of the friars to Chiapa, the conquistador Francisco Gil and the cacique, the calpixque, and fray Luis de Cuenca carrying loads; printed page 722, Libro XI, the Manche towns baptised by 1606, the dress of their people and the cutting of the men's braids; printed pages 734, 736, 737 and 745, Libro XI cap. XXI to XXIII, the death of fray Iuan Ramirez fourth bishop of Guatemala on 24 March 1609, his refusal of absolution to holders of Indian service, the Synod of Mexico, his tour of the province, and the obituaries of friars including Francisco de Viana of Coban; printed page 784, the last page of the Tabla de los Capitulos." }, { "id": "vetancurt-teatro-mexicano-mexico-1698", "title": "Teatro mexicano. Descripcion breve de los svcessos exemplares, historicos, politicos, militares, y religiosos del nuevo mundo Occidental de las Indias... dispvesto por el R.P. Fr. Avgvstin de Vetancvrt, Mexicano, hijo de la misma Provincia... Chronista Apostolico, Vicario, y Cura Ministro, por su Magestad, de la Iglesia Parrochial de S. Joseph de los Naturales de Mexico", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Lf-1jsv46yMC&pg=PP3", "publisher": "En Mexico por Doña Maria de Benavides Viuda de Iuan de Ribera, año de 1698. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The 1698 Mexico sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-10 through the anchored click3 page-image route at w=1600. This digitisation carries the Primera Parte only - the structural map returns 18 PP images and 66 PA images, and printed folio 66 closes with \"y con esto concluyo con esta primera parte, y sus tratados\", so the Chronica de la Provincia and the Menologio that complete the Teatro mexicano are NOT in this volume and nothing here may be cited for them. The Google pid tracks the printed foliation exactly on this volume: PA1 is Fol. 1, PA66 is Fol. 66. Reliability sits below the tier deliberately. This is a Franciscan of the Provincia del Santo Evangelio writing under obedience, and its natural history freely mixes what the author says he saw and weighed with providential reading and with matter taken from other books; it is strong evidence of what a Mexican-born friar put in print in 1698 and of the vocabulary and prices he used, weaker evidence for any event he did not witness. Pages opened and read - PP1, a blank leaf; PP3, the title page with the Benavides imprint and the year 1698; PP5, the opening of the Dedicatoria; printed folios 1 and 2, the Introducion, with the mandate of the Provincia, the count of foundations and of lives written, and the eight months in Latin; folio 3, the opening of Tratado Primero, capitulo primero, against the ancient cosmography of the torrid zone, with the Plus Ultra passage and the marginal citations of Solorzano, Aristotle, Augustine and Isaiah; folio 24, the pearls of Margarita, the soldier and the Indian woman's nose ornament, the coal of Xongopavi in the province of Moqui, and the cordilleras of the two Americas; folio 44, the ledger of Old World seeds owed to Spain, the Blanquillo wheat scare of the year 78, and the American staples with their Nahuatl names; folio 66, the birds, the hummingbird and the featherwork ornaments in the Franciscan convent of Mexico, the Manucodiatas of the Philippines, and the closing of the first part. Folio 44 was re-opened and re-read on 2026-08-16 for the wheat varieties in paragraph 141 — \"Trigo Candial, y Pelon, de Riego, y Temporal, el Blanquillo, y Tremesino que se da en menos tiempo, y acude mas\" — which had not been cited before; the accessed date is moved accordingly. Note for later runs that on this fetch the signed page image for folio 44 arrived as a JPEG rather than the PNG the other pages of this volume return, which is a container format difference and not a failure." }, { "id": "gonzalez-davila-teatro-eclesiastico-madrid-1649", "title": "Teatro eclesiastico de la primitiva iglesia de las Indias Occidentales, vidas de svs arzobispos, obispos, y cosas memorables de sus sedes... dedicasele su Coronista Mayor de las Indias, y de los Reynos de las dos Castillas el maestro Gil Gonzalez Davila. Tomo primero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=g3VkAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP1", "publisher": "Con privilegio. En Madrid, por Diego Diaz de la Carrera, año M.DC.XLIX. Full-view digitisation of a European library copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The 1649 Madrid sheets of the first tome, read as page scans on 2026-08-10 through the anchored click3 route at w=1600; the volume maps to 18 PP, 308 PA, 34 PA-IA and 8 PT images, and the PA pid tracks the printed foliation (PA30 is folio 30). Reliability is set well below the tier and should stay there. The author is the crown's Coronista Mayor de las Indias writing in Madrid from relations, memorials and printed books sent to him; his governing frame is stated on his own first page - the discoveries are \"milagros notorios\" - and his aggregate tallies mix exact counts with \"muchos\" and \"infinitos\". He is strong evidence for what the crown's own chronicler asserted in print in 1649, for the documents he says he read, and for the institutional geography he lists see by see; he is weak evidence for miracles, for motives, and for any figure whose register he does not name. Pages opened and read - PP1, the title page with the Diaz de la Carrera imprint and the year M.DC.XLIX; PP3, the opening of the dedication to Philip IV; PP5, leaf a3 of the dedication, with the aggregate tally of sees, prebends, convents, Inquisitions, universities, colleges and hospitals, the 170,000 ducados spent on the Philippines mission, the cedula of 16 October 1639 in favour of the liberty of the Indians, the donation of the tithes, and the cities and villas founded in Peru; printed folio 1, the opening of the Teatro proper, on the discoveries as notorious miracles and on Cabeza de Vaca's Comentarios; folio 30, the suffragans of the archbishopric of Mexico, the 1633 count of parishes, communicants and clergy, the citation of Leon Pinelo's Biblioteca Indiana, Grijalva on the epidemic of 1543, and the reception of the visitador Tello de Sandoval in mourning; folios 145 and 150, the church of Guatemala, the six Franciscans of 1540 and the seventy ducados a head from Seville to Vera Cruz, the chapel built by black people in the Franciscan convent, the Colegio de S. Tomas de Aquino of 1553 and its 1648 endowment, the first Mexican Council of 1555, the Dominican province of 140 religious of whom 62 born in the Indies over 68 pueblos, and the Hospital de S. Alexo; folio 250, the visitation of the bishop of Nueva Vizcaya and the notarial testimony the author says he read in original on 13 September 1643; and PT1, the back-matter lists of saints canonised and of persons for whose canonisation Philip IV petitioned the Holy See. Pages opened and read 2026-08-16 by the same route — folio 17, the memorial to the crown on the excessive number of clergy and feasts, the Colegio de Todos Santos of 1563, and the petition that the king finish the convent of Nuestra Señora de la Concepcion \"à q dio principio Don Fernando Cortes Marques del Valle\" and found the Colegio de Cuyoacan; folio 95, inside the succession of the church of Puebla de los Angeles, the list crediting a bishop who died in 1625 with founding the hospital of Santa Fe de Mexico, its namesake in Michoacan, Santa Fe del Rio, the hospital of Patzcuaro and the Colegio de S. Nicolas at Valladolid — the passage that the rector of that college attacked by name in 1766 as a conflation of Quiroga's foundations, and a worked example of this volume's weakness for anything its author did not see; folio 111, the life of \"Don Blasco de Quiroga\", with Santa Fe founded two leagues from the Audiencia, the lands bought and distributed, the house where Gregorio Lopez lived, the \"Hospital de la Cuna, donde se crian niños hijos de Indios, publicàdo primero, que la madre que no quisiesse criar su hijo, le traxesse al Hospital\", the adjoining Colegio dedicated to San Nicolas for Indian boys teaching reading, writing, canto llano, canto de organo and every kind of instrument, and the hospital where the sick were cured, all spent from his own estate while he was Oydor." }, { "id": "eguiara-bibliotheca-mexicana-1755-anteloquia", "title": "Bibliotheca Mexicana sive eruditorum historia virorum, qui in America Boreali nati... Tomus primus: title page and Anteloquia (the prefatory discourses)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ec1JAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Joannes Josephus de Eguiara et Eguren; Mexici, ex nova Typographia in Aedibus Authoris editioni ejusdem Bibliothecae destinata, Anno Domini MDCCLV. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1755 Mexico folio, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Reliability sits below the tier because the book is a defence as well as a bibliography: its author states on these very pages that he undertook it to vindicate his fatherland against an insult, and he was at the same time a censor of the Holy Office and dedicated the volume to Ferdinand VI. He is an excellent witness to what he read, to what he printed and to his own motive, and an interested one as to the merits. Pages opened and read - PP7, the title page, giving the scope (men born in North America, or begotten elsewhere and drawn into it by domicile or studies, who handed down anything in writing in any language), the dedication to Ferdinand VI, the author's styles (elected bishop of Yucatan, canon magistral of the metropolitan church, primary and emeritus professor of theology and sometime rector of the royal and pontifical university of Mexico, censor of the Holy Office), \"TOMUS PRIMUS Exhibens Litteras A B C\", and the imprint - printed at Mexico from a new press set up in the author's own house for this edition, 1755; PP46, the Anteloquium narrating how Eguiara came upon the Epistolarum libri duodecim of Manuel Marti, dean of Alicante, printed at Madrid by Juan de Zuniga in 1735, and stopped at epistle 16 of book 7, which he swallowed \"non sine bili & stomacho\", with the letter's text - \"Quo te vertes apud Indos in tam vasta litterarum solitudine? Quem adibis, non dicam Magistrum, cujus praeceptis instituaris, sed auditorem?... Ecquosnam evolves Codices? Ecquas lustrabis Bibliothecas? Haec enim omnia tam frustra quaeres, quam qui tondet asinum vel mulget hircum\"; PP47, the continuation, Marti naming Mexico \"postremam, si Superis placet, totius Orbis barbariem, cimmerijs inscitiae tenebris involutam\", and Eguiara's statement of motive - \"Haec postquam animo versabamus, Epistola Martini perlecta, statim cogitatio nos subijt Bibliothecae Mexicanae adoriendae, qua una Patriam gentemque nostram ab immani atrocique injuria vindicaremus\"; PP49, the turn of the argument that Marti, expert in the monuments and inscriptions of the old world, had disdained the new and was wholly ignorant of antiquities in it most worth knowing; PP52, on the Mexican painted books, the Tonalamatl whose exemplar Siguenza owned and transcribed to the letter in his Cyclographia as stated in the proem of the Libra astronomica, and the passage in which Eguiara records that the first missionaries, ignorant of what lay under those figures, judged such volumes superstitious and full of idols, sought them out everywhere and committed them to the flames, \"lacrymabili Antiquitatum Americanorum & Historiae jactura\"." }, { "id": "eguiara-bibliotheca-mexicana-1755-catalogus", "title": "Bibliotheca Mexicana... Tomus primus, the alphabetical catalogue of authors, letters A B C", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ec1JAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA470", "publisher": "Joannes Josephus de Eguiara et Eguren; Mexici, ex nova Typographia in Aedibus Authoris, MDCCLV. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The numbered author entries of the 1755 volume, arranged by baptismal name, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. The same interest that qualifies the Anteloquia qualifies these entries: they are compiled to demonstrate that America had letters, so the praise is to be discounted while the bibliographical particulars - titles, imprints, printers, dates, cross-references - are the compiler's stock in trade. Pages opened and read - PA470, entry 665, the head of the article on D. Carolus de Siguenza et Gongora, \"Natione Mexicanus & Patria\", his Jesuit schooling, the heroic poem Ver Indicum written in his seventeenth year in praise of the Guadalupe image and printed when he was older, his philosophy and theology, the canon law taken in the halls of the university of Mexico, and the history, criticism and mathematics he added to them; PA477, the article's list of the comet writings - the Expositio Philosophica adversus Cometas, Mexico 1681 in quarto, published to free people from the panic terror of the comet visible from about mid-November 1680; the three opponents who attacked it in printed dissertations, one held contemptible, the other two answered with apologetics, the first unpublished and the second printed as the Libra Astronomica & Philosophica, \"ad quam D. Carolus de Siguenza & Gongora Cosmographus & Mathematicus Regius in Academia Mexicanensi revocat nedum ea quae adversus Expositionem Philosophicam in Cometas suam opposuit R. P. Eusebius Franciscus Kino Societatis JESU\", Mexico, ex Officina viduae Bernardi Calderon, 1690, ready for the press in 1682 on the evidence of its approbations and licences but withheld by the author's modesty in a friend's chest until the great comet of December 1689; the friend and paymaster of the printing, D. Sebastian de Guzman y Cordova, skilled in hydrography and navigation learned from the Spanish mathematician Francisco de Ruesta, 26 years in practice and then serving the royal procuration at Mexico, who wrote the proem; and the next title in the list, a Historica narratio of the Armada de Barlovento at the turn of 1690-91 and of the victory over the French holding the northern shores of Hispaniola, with Puerto Guarico and the neighbouring villages taken by flame; PA480, the passage crediting Siguenza alone with setting the computations of remote antiquity in good light, his comparison of the year-order of oriental nations with the most ancient Mexican tables and his derivation of the beginnings of the Mexican nation from the solar and lunar eclipses and notable comets recorded in the Indian calendar, the testimony of Gian Francesco Gemelli Careri, Giro del Mondo, third edition, Naples, Felice Mosca, 1721, part 6, book 1, chapter 6, page 60, that whatever he writes on Mexican antiquities in his sixth volume he owes to Siguenza, printing the Mexican year-cycle in Italian with a plate as he had received it, and Eguiara's report that Siguenza foretold in the preface to the Paraiso occidental, \"non absque egregio dolore suo\", that his great work on those antiquities would be buried with him; PA505, entry 708 and its neighbours, a manuscript volume held in the Jesuit library and judged to be \"unum ex illis esse quae D. Carolus de Siguenza & Gongora coacervaverat, moriensque PP. Jesuitis reliquit\"." }, { "id": "carochi-arte-1645-print", "title": "Arte de la lengua mexicana con la declaracion de los adverbios della (Mexico: Iuan Ruyz, 1645)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=lIACAAAAQAAJ", "publisher": "Horacio Carochi, S.J.; printed at Mexico City by Juan Ruyz, 1645. Bodleian Library copy (shelfmark stamp on the title leaf), digitised by Google", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1645 Mexico sheets. Page scans opened and read 2026-08-10 through the signed page-image endpoint at 1600px width. Front matter: PP5 the title page (title, dedicatee, author, \"IMPRESSO CON LICENCIA En MEXICO: Por Iuan Ruyz. Ano de 1645\"), read again in show-through on its verso PP6; PP7 the viceregal licence of the Conde de Salvatierra, Mexico 3 June 1645; PP8 the ecclesiastical licence of Dr Pedro de Barrientos Lomelin, 18 July 1645; PP9 the Jesuit provincial licence of Francisco Calderon, 29 June 1645; PP10 and PP11 the parecer of Bachiller Don Bartolome de Alva, dated 31 May 1645, and the opening of Balthasar Gonzalez's parecer; PP13 the dedication head with Archbishop Juan de Mannozca's titles; PP14 the dedication signed by Carochi; PP15 and PP16 the prologue \"Al lector\". Body: PA1 (Libro primero, cap. 1, section 1 \"de las letras\") and PA2 (section 2 \"de los accentos\"). The imprint on the title page is corroborated by the three licences, all dated 1645 at Mexico." }, { "id": "del-rio-descripcion-palenque-london-1822", "title": "Description of the ruins of an ancient city, discovered near Palenque - the report of Captain Antonio del Rio to Jose Estacheria, dated 24 June 1787", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=XuUqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Antonio del Rio, captain of artillery, report to Jose Estacheria, governor and commandant general of the kingdom of Guatemala; translated from the original manuscript report and printed at London by Henry Berthoud, no. 65 Regent's Quadrant, Piccadilly, and Suttaby, Evance and Fox, Stationer's Court, 1822. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The officer's own report, but at two removes: an English translation of a Spanish manuscript, printed commercially in London thirty-five years after it was written, by a publisher who dedicated the volume to Lord Holland and bound it with a speculative treatise. Reliability is set below the tier for that reason and because the report argues for the diligence of its author to the superior who commissioned him. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-10 - PR3, the title page; PR5, the publisher's dedication; PA1 to PA3, PA8, PA9, PA11, PA17 to PA21. Contents relied on - the title page, \"DESCRIPTION OF THE Ruins of an Ancient City, DISCOVERED NEAR PALENQUE, IN THE KINGDOM OF GUATEMALA, IN SPANISH AMERICA: TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL MANUSCRIPT REPORT OF CAPTAIN DON ANTONIO DEL RIO: FOLLOWED BY TEATRO CRITICO AMERICANO\", with the London imprint and the date 1822; the dedication leaf, \"DEDICATED BY PERMISSION TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE LORD HOLLAND\", signed \"THE PUBLISHER\"; the opening of the report, addressed to \"DON JOSE ESTACHERIA, BRIGADIER, GOVERNOR AND COMMANDANT GENERAL OF THE KINGDOM OF GUATEMALA\", reciting the resolution of his Majesty \"communicated by his royal order, bearing date May 15th, 1786, relative to another examination of the ruins discovered in the vicinity of Palenque, in the province of Ciudad Real de Chiapa, in New Spain\", Estacheria's desire of 20 March that he proceed thither, his arrival on 3 May and his going out on the 5th to the site \"which is there called Casas de Piedras (stone houses)\"; the fog that hid the principal building on the first attempt; the order to Tumbala \"requiring two hundred Indians who should be provided with axes and bill-hooks\", of whom \"none, however, arrived until the 17th, and then only seventy-nine in number, furnished with twenty-eight axes\", twenty more being got in the village; the felling completed on the 2nd \"followed by a general conflagration\"; the statement of method, that ultimately \"there remained neither a window nor a doorway blocked up; a partition that was not thrown down, nor a room, corridor, court, tower, nor subterranean passage in which excavations were not effected from two to three yards (varas) in depth\"; the situation of the site two leagues from Palenque by the little river Micol; the remark that the edifices had been \"unknown to the historians of the new world, by whom no mention whatsoever is made of their existence\" and the inference that \"the identity of the ancient inhabitants of Yucatan and Palenque, is, in my opinion, evidently proved by the strong analogy of their customs, buildings, and acquaintance with the arts\"; the admission of having \"deviated a little from the instructions contained in my commission\"; the portico of thirty-six varas on rectangular pillars, the stucco shields and medallions, the windows \"some in form of a Greek cross\", the court entered by seven steps and the tower of sixteen yards in four stories; the removal of sculpture - \"I have transported from this chamber the head of the sufferer, fig. 8, and the foot and leg of the executioner or sacrificer, fig. 11, which pieces are numbered 4 and 5\"; the buried deposits of flint lance, conical pyramids, heart of dark crystallised stone called challa and covered jars with a ball of vermilion, transmitted \"being numbered 13, 14, 15 and 16\" and 17 and 18, and the further objects numbered 19 to 22, the vase with challa blades numbered 23 and 24, the pot of small bones and teeth numbered 25, and the samples of lime, mortar and burnt brick from number 26; the reading that the bas-reliefs mark a spot where \"they venerated, as sacred objects, the remains of their greatest heroes\" and that the inscriptions \"were intended to eternise their names\"; the contrary conjecture that the ancient inhabitants \"lived in extreme darkness\", that in their superstitions may be seen the idolatry \"of the Phoenicians, the Greeks, the Romans and other primitive nations\", and that one of those nations pursued its conquests to this country and stayed \"long enough to enable the Indian tribes to imitate their ideas and adopt, in a rude and awkward manner, such arts as their invaders thought fit to inculcate\"; the omission of the northern buildings \"as they are now nearly destroyed\"; the closing statement that during the examination \"no circumstance worthy of notice, has been omitted\"; and the signature and date, \"ANTONIO DEL RIO. Palenque, June 24, 1787.\"" }, { "id": "cabrera-teatro-critico-americano-1822", "title": "Teatro critico americano; or, a critical investigation and research into the history of the Americans - the title page of the treatise printed after del Rio's report", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=XuUqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA23", "publisher": "Paul Felix Cabrera, of the city of New Guatemala; printed in English translation at London by Henry Berthoud and Suttaby, Evance and Fox, 1822. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.4, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "Registered apart from the report so that del Rio's field observations do not borrow, or lend, the standing of the treatise bound after them. Reliability is set low deliberately: the work is used here only as evidence of what the 1822 volume contains, not for any claim about the Americas. Page opened and read as a scan on 2026-08-10 - PA23, the divisional title page. Contents relied on - the heading \"TEATRO CRITICO AMERICANO, OR, A CRITICAL INVESTIGATION AND RESEARCH INTO THE HISTORY OF THE AMERICANS\", and the argument advertised beneath it, that \"The Monuments found by Captain DEL RIO\" are \"analized and compared with those of the Egyptians and other Nations, proving that a connexion has existed between them and the AMERICANS, and solving the GRAND HISTORICAL PROBLEM OF ITS POPULATION\", with the discovery of \"the Kingdom of AMAGUEMECAN, and its chief city HUEHUETLAPALLAN\", the identification of Huitzilopochtli as \"the MARS, and principal Protector of the Mexicans\", and the question \"Who were the TULTECAS?\"" }, { "id": "villasenor-theatro-americano-parte-segunda-1748", "title": "Theatro americano, descripcion general de los reynos, y provincias de la Nueva-Espana, y sus jurisdicciones - Parte Segunda, Libro III, the jurisdictions of the bishopric of Michoacan", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=_FVfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Joseph Antonio de Villa-Senor y Sanchez, Contador General de la Real Contaduria de Azogues and Cosmographo of the kingdom; Mexico, en la Imprenta de la Viuda de D. Joseph Bernardo de Hogal, Impressora del Real y Apostolico Tribunal de la Santa Cruzada, Calle de las Capuchinas, 1748. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The second volume of the survey, printed in Mexico while the author was still the crown's accountant for quicksilver. Reliability is set below the tier because the figures are the author's redaction of returns sent in by local officials and clergy rather than a count he made himself, and because the dedication is an exercise in praise of the monarch who ordered the work. This copy carries the stamp of the Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-10 - PP5, the title page; PP8, PP9 and PP10, the dedication to Fernando VI; PA1, the opening of Libro III; PA3; PA13 and PA14, within the description of Patzcuaro and the entry into the jurisdiction of Tacambaro. Contents relied on - the title page, \"THEATRO AMERICANO, DESCRIPCION GENERAL DE LOS REYNOS, Y PROVINCIAS DE LA NUEVA-ESPAÑA, Y SUS JURISDICCIONES: DEDICALA AL REY NUESTRO SEÑOR El Señor D. FERNANDO VI. MONARCHA DE LAS ESPAÑAS. SU AUTHOR D. JOSEPH ANTONIO DE VILLA-SEÑOR, Y SANCHEZ, Contador General de la Real Contaduria de Azogues, y Cosmographo de este Reyno. QUIEN LA ESCRIBIÓ DE ORDEN DEL EXCELENTISSIMO SEÑOR CONDE DE FUEN-CLARA, Y LA IMPRIMIÓ DE LA DEL EXCELENTISSIMO SEÑOR D. JUAN FRANCISCO GUEMEZ DE HORCASITAS, Virrey, Gobernador, y Capitan General de esta Nueva España, y Presidente de su Real Audiencia, &c. SEGUNDA PARTE\", with the imprint and the year 1748; the dedication, which names the instrument that commanded the work - \"la descripcion, que por Real Orden de 19. de Julio de 1741. mandò formar la Real Catholica Magestad, de mi amado Monaracha el Señor DON PHILIPO QUINTO\" - and states that the first volume was consecrated to that king and that the author has proceeded in \"amorosa obediencia á los preceptos Soberanos, que han agitado á mi rudeza calificada en el primero Tomo de esta descripció\"; the head of Libro III, \"Que contiene las Jurisdicciones del Obispado de Michoacán. CAPITULO I. De la Ciudad de Valladolid, y Jurisdiccion de Pasquaro, y sus Pueblos\"; on PA3, the survey of the unmapped north, the lands \"no taladas\" beyond the polar circle, the coasts from Florida northward settled by those established \"en la Virginia, en la Canada, Nueva Francia, Nueva Bretaña, y Groelanda\", of which he judges that \"aun todavia son sombra las Poblaciones para lo que ofrece el territorio interno\", and the roll of peoples left to a future narration - \"las Provincias Apaches, Moquinas, Nijoras, Cocomaricopas, Quiviras, Misuries, Ilinois, Canadas, Iroqueses\"; on PA13, the chapel called el Humilladero at Patzcuaro, \"por ser el parage en que los Indios de la Provincia, se rindieron humildes à los Españoles, que emprendieron su pacificacion\", the parish church that served thirty years as cathedral of Michoacan before the see moved to Valladolid, the name of the place taken from the lake, which \"en su Idioma quiere dezir lugar donde ay pescado\", and the Jesuit college holding \"las respectables cenizas del Illmo y V. D. Basco de Quiroga, primer Obispo de Michoacán\"; on PA14, the descendant of the last Purepecha ruler, \"Pedro Calzontzi, Nieto del Rey Calzontzi\", who as a Jesuit donado \"vivió Santamente en el exercicio de Maestro de Escuela, hasta que la piedad con q assistia à los enfermos en una gravissima epidemia le quitò la vida\"; and the population entry that counts the two republics separately - \"Consta su Vecindario de mas de quinientas familias de Españoles, Mestizos, y Mulatos, y la Republica de los Indios con su Gobernador, y Alcaldes se compone de dos mil familias del Idioma Tarasco\" - followed by the note that the city's commerce is in copper, the mines being near, and equally in sugars and in goods made in the land and coming from Europe." }, { "id": "mendieta-historia-eclesiastica-indiana-mexico-1870", "title": "Historia eclesiástica indiana, obra escrita á fines del siglo XVI por Fray Gerónimo de Mendieta, de la Orden de San Francisco; la publica por primera vez Joaquin Garcia Icazbalceta", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=2c8GAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3", "publisher": "México, Antigua Librería, Portal de Agustinos Nº 3, M.DCCC.LXX. Full-view digitisation of the Bodleian Library copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1870 sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. This is the first printing of a work written at the end of the sixteenth century, so it is primary for the printed book and for its front matter, and one remove from the author for Mendieta's own text - every quotation here is of Icazbalceta's 1870 setting from a manuscript, not of an autograph, and the volume prints no collation of the manuscript it used. The reliability sits well below the tier for that reason and for one more the volume supplies itself - two of the three prefatory pieces are eulogies written inside the author's own order. Pages opened and read - PP5, the printed wrapper; PR3, the title page with the Mexico 1870 imprint of the Antigua Librería and the Bodleian ownership stamp; PR5 and PR6, the Advertencia, on the Historia having been announced in 1866 as the third volume of the Colección de Documentos para la Historia de México and issued instead as a separate work, on the first two volumes having been printed in the editor's own house and largely by his own hands, on that press passing in 1867 to other people, and on his decision to stop the Colección, signed México, 31 de Diciembre de 1869; PR7 to PR12, the Indice, giving the chapter titles of Libros II, III and IV with their page numbers; PA3, the Obediencia del General de la Órden para el autor, the Latin patent of Frater Christophorus de Capitefontium dated Romæ apud Aramcæli, MDLXXI, die Junii xxvij; PA5 and PA6, the Carta dedicatoria to fray Antonio de Trejo, signed Fr. Joan de Domayquia at the convent of San Francisco de Vitoria on 1 July 1611; PA7, the Prólogo al devoto lector, on the author's birthplace, age, years in the Indies, and sources; PA111, the opening of Libro II capítulo XX on Nahua child-rearing measured against Aristotle's Politics; PA114, the middle of the exhortation of an Indian father to his married son." }, { "id": "unanue-guia-del-peru-1793-facsimile-lima-1985", "title": "Hipólito Unanue, Guía política, eclesiástica y militar del Vireynato del Perú para el año de 1793 - edición, prólogo y apéndices de José Durand", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=7QPwAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR5", "publisher": "Lima, 1985, Corporación Financiera de Desarrollo S. A. COFIDE, Oficina de Asuntos Culturales; publicación recomendada por la Academia Nacional de la Historia. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "A 1985 Lima edition that reproduces the 1793 Guía in facsimile, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. The tier is deliberately the weaker one - the pages carrying Unanue's words are photographic facsimiles of the 1793 sheets and are headed as such, but the 1793 printing itself was not opened from this container, and a facsimile inside a modern edition is a modern editor's selection until the original is collated against it. Reliability sits above the tier because the facsimile plates are legible and self-identifying, carrying the running heads GUIA DEL PERU, 1793 and the original page numbers. Pages opened and read - PR4, the colour portrait plate of Unanue from the Museo Nacional de Historia, Lima; PR5, the 1985 title page with the COFIDE imprint and Durand's editorship; PR7, the publisher's Presentación, on the five Guías of 1793-1797, on Durand as a Peruvian researcher teaching at the University of California, Berkeley, on this being the first complete facsimile of the 1793 Guía together with the statistical tables of the other four, and on the editors' judgement of the compilation's originality; PR41-IA1, facsimile page II, the extent of Peru in leagues and degrees and the choice of the Meridian of Cádiz, the boundaries, the terrain and the Réaumur readings; PR41-IA3, facsimile page IV, the corregidores and the repartimiento, the 1784 reduction of 77 corregimientos to 7 intendancies of 51 partidos, and the 1787 separation of Huamanga and Cuzco from the Audiencia of Lima; PR41-IA5, facsimile page VI, the statement of the Guía's object, the acknowledgement of the viceroy Francisco Gil y Lemos, and the first of the Advertencias on latitudes and longitudes; PA3, facsimile page 3 of the Guía proper, the staff of a government office with street names and house numbers and the note totalling its salaries and expenses." }, { "id": "castellanos-elegias-bae-1852", "title": "Elegías de Varones ilustres de Indias, por Juan de Castellanos (Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, tomo IV), with the dedication to Philip II, the censura of Agustín de Zárate and the Elogios de la obra por varios ingenios", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJRQi6BK5xwC&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Biblioteca de Autores Españoles desde la formacion del lenguaje hasta nuestros dias, ordenada por D. Buenaventura Carlos Aribau; segunda edicion, Madrid, Imprenta y Estereotipía de M. Rivadeneyra, Salon del Prado 8, 1852. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The poem and the preliminary documents of the 1589 book as reprinted in the Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. This is a nineteenth-century collected edition and not a printing the author saw: no sixteenth-century impression of the Elegías was reachable from this container, and no reading is asserted here of one. Reliability is set well below the tier for that distance, and for a second reason the volume states itself — the running foot reads T. IV, so this is one tome of a commercial series with no collation of the copy used printed anywhere in the front matter. Pages opened and read - PP9, the series title page with Aribau's name, the words SEGUNDA EDICION, the Rivadeneyra imprint and the date 1852; PA1, the half-title ELEGIAS DE VARONES ILUSTRES DE INDIAS, COMPUESTAS POR JUAN DE CASTELLANOS and the opening of the DEDICATORIA AL REY DON FELIPE II; PA2, the close of the dedication over the signature JUAN DE CASTELLANOS and the first two columns of the CENSURA DE AGUSTIN DE ZARATE AL CONSEJO REAL; PA3, the close of the censura, including the passage on indigenous names in the verse and the comparison with Ercilla's Araucana, and the opening of the ELOGIOS DE LA OBRA POR VARIOS INGENIOS; PA4, further elogios, among them those of Cristóbal de Leon, vecino de Santa Fé en el Nuevo reino, and of Sebastián García, natural de Tunja en el Nuevo reino; PA5, PRIMERA PARTE, ELEGIA I, CANTO PRIMERO, the statement of method and the octaves announcing what the poem will show; PA6, the continuation of Canto Primero, on Columbus and on the Castilian pilot." }, { "id": "castellanos-prologo-bae-1852", "title": "Prologo to the Elegías de Varones ilustres de Indias (Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, tomo IV), pages V-VI", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJRQi6BK5xwC&pg=PP11", "publisher": "Madrid, Imprenta y Estereotipía de M. Rivadeneyra, 1852. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The unsigned editorial prologue that opens the 1852 reprint, read as page scans on 2026-08-10 (PP11 and PP12). Registered separately from the text it introduces because it is nineteenth-century commentary and its statements about the author's life are demonstrably second-hand: it says so itself, reporting that research in archives and libraries turned up mention of Castellanos only in Nicolás Antonio and in the notes Juan Bautista Muñoz left at the Academia de la Historia. Reliability is low accordingly, and the one biographical assertion it makes about the author's birth is carried in this corpus as the prologue's statement and not as a fact." }, { "id": "piedrahita-historia-general-nuevo-reyno-1688", "title": "Historia general de las conqvistas del Nvevo Reyno de Granada, a la S.C.R.M. de D. Carlos Segvndo, Rey de las Españas y de las Indias, por el doctor D. Lucas Fernandez Piedrahita", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=1clTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP21", "publisher": "The 1688 printing; preliminaries all dated at Madrid, 1688. Full-view digitisation of the copy of the Kaiserliche Koenigliche Hofbibliothek, Wien, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1688 sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Primary for the printed book, for its two engraved plates and for its preliminary documents; one long remove from the events, since the author states in his own Al lector that he compiled the work in the year sixty-six from two manuscripts and supplied the motives himself. Reliability sits below the tier for that reason and for one the volume does not settle: no letterpress title page carrying a place of printing or a printer's name appears among the leaves opened here, so no imprint beyond \"Madrid, 1688\" on the licences is asserted anywhere in this corpus. Pages opened and read - PP4, blank; PP5, the engraved title plate signed J. Mulder fec., with the medallion portraits of the zipas of Bogotá and the four named battle vignettes; PP6, its verso, carrying the Vienna Hofbibliothek stamp; PP7, the opening of the dedication SEÑOR to Carlos II, on the obsidional crown, on the long siege of persecutions that brought the author to court, and on the chronicle woven in Madrid; PP11, the aprobación of Fr. Felipe de Zamora, procurator general of the Province of Quito, dated Madrid 27 April 1688, and the licence of Alonso Portillo y Cardos, dated 28 April 1688; PP13, the royal privilege EL REY, granting ten years and reciting the author's offices; PP15, the tassa of Manuel de Moxica, Madrid 9 August 1688, at eight maravedís the pliego, and the erratas signed by Martín de Ascarça, corrector general, Madrid 5 August 1688, which name the book a Primera parte; PP17, the close of Fr. Juan Meléndez's piece and his sonnet to Nueva Granada; PP19, the Latin poem of Ignacio Martínez de Aibar y Eslava, Indorum Protector generalis at Quito; PP21 and PP22, the two pages of the AL LECTOR, on the two manuscripts used, on the separation of Muisca custom from conquest narrative, on the preference for Herrera, on the twenty-two cantos of Castellanos, on Medrano and Aguado, and on what the author claims to have added; PP23, the second engraved plate, PRIMERA PARTE, LIBRO PRIMERO, with the medallion portraits of the zaques of Tunja and its statement of the book's subject." }, { "id": "leon-biblioteca-botanico-mexicana-1895", "title": "Biblioteca botánica-mexicana: catálogo bibliográfico, biográfico y crítico de autores y escritos referentes a vegetales de México y sus aplicaciones, desde la conquista hasta el presente", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=-KYWAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA323", "publisher": "Por el Dr. Nicolás León; México, Oficina Tipográfica de la Secretaría de Fomento, 1895. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1895 Mexico printing of the standard nineteenth-century catalogue of writings on Mexican plants, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. It is a compilation: entries quote earlier printed sources - in the pages used here the Supplement to the \"Gaceta de México\", tomo III, page 75, and the account of Mociño's last years written by his pupil Pablo de la Llave - rather than archival originals, so it is registered as secondary and cited for what it records rather than for what it witnessed. Reliability sits below the tier for a second reason stated in the object that cites it: the author is a Mexican writing in Mexico about \"our botanists\", and the Mexican members of the expedition are the heroes of his narrative. The page-image endpoint served the binding cover but no title page for this copy, so the imprint above - Nicolás León, Oficina Tipográfica de la Secretaría de Fomento, Mexico, 1895, 372 pages - is taken from the Google Books volume record rather than from a title page opened here. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-10: PA3, the opening page of the author's preface, on why the intellectual work of a people has to be inventoried; RA1-PA86, the bibliography of Vicente Cervantes, listing the printed \"Ejercicios públicos de Botánica\" of Mexico 1788, 1789, 1790, 1793 and 1794, the last including Ignacio León y Pérez, \"indio cazique aprobado en Farmacia\", sustaining the classification of the hule; RA1-PA189 and RA1-PA190, entry 511 for José Mariano Mociño, with the imprints of \"Flora Mexicana\" (Mexico 1888, folio, Sociedad Mexicana de Historia Natural, with Ricardo Ramírez's review of the expedition, reprinted 1894 by the Instituto Médico Nacional with José Ramírez's index of vulgar and indigenous names) and of \"Plantae Novae Hispaniae\" (Mexici 1886, folio, reprinted by the Secretaría de Fomento for the Chicago exposition of 1893 with José Ramírez's \"Sinonimia vulgar y científica\"); RA1-PA191, the rest of that entry, including drawings then in Geneva with the Decandolle family and in the general herbarium of the Madrid botanical garden, the 1791 communication to the Conde de Revilla Gigedo then held by Miguel Colmeiro, and the biographical note giving Mociño's birth at Temascaltepec, his place among the first pupils of Cervantes and his death at Barcelona; RA1-PA324, the appointment of Martín Sessé y Lacasta in 1787 with the direction of the garden to be established in Mexico annexed, the other members, the selection of the personnel by Casimiro Gómez Ortega, and the opening of the Real Estudio Botánico on 1 May 1788 in the Real y Pontificia Universidad, with the inaugural oration by Sessé, the oath of the professors, the Audiencia and doctors present, Francisco Xavier Gamboa representing the viceroy, the illumination, and the papaya-tree firework set piece demonstrating the sexes of plants; RA1-PA326, the first course of botany given by Cervantes, Mociño and Maldonado proposed by Sessé in 1791, the division of the field work, Mociño's routes from Tabasco to Guatemala, the Tarahumara, California as far as Nootka, the Jorullo, Guadalajara and San Andrés Tuxtla, the death of Juan Diego del Castillo on 26 July 1793 and his legacy of 4,000 pesos towards printing the Flora, the naming of Castilloa elastica, the draughtsman Juan Cerda, the Mexican painter Atanasio Echeverría and the apothecary Jaime Senseve; RA1-PA335, the cold reception and lack of resources to print, Mociño's pension and household with Sessé until Sessé's death in 1809, his direction of the Gabinete de Historia Natural with Pablo de la Llave, his refusal to recognise Barrois at the Academy of Medicine, and Llave's account of his imprisonment and of the chain gang out of Madrid." }, { "id": "candolle-memoires-et-souvenirs-1862", "title": "Mémoires et souvenirs de Augustin-Pyramus de Candolle, écrits par lui-même et publiés par son fils", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=dOcWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA288", "publisher": "Augustin-Pyramus de Candolle, published by Alphonse de Candolle; Genève, Joël Cherbuliez, 1862. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The 1862 printing of the botanist's own memoirs, read as page scans on 2026-08-10, and used here only for the sections in which he is the direct witness. Reliability sits well below the tier: the memoir was written decades after the events, the Mexican episode is one in which the author and his friends are the rescuers, and the printed page misnames the king who ordered the expedition as Charles VI where Charles IV is meant - an error left visible in the object rather than silently corrected. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-10: PA219, section 12, \"Flore du Mexique\", on Joseph Mociño as a refugee of the war in Spain, his commission with Sessé to make the flora of Mexico as Ruiz and Pavón had that of Peru, and his arrival at Montpellier with thirteen to fourteen hundred coloured drawings of Mexican plants then little known because the \"Nova genera\" of Kunth and Humboldt had not begun to appear; PA288, section 2, \"Copie de la flore du Mexique\", on showing the drawings during the Geneva course, the two ladies who copied a plate as a challenge, Mociño's letter saying he had permission to return to Spain but dared not present himself without the drawings, which belonged to the king, and Madame Lavit's proposal to copy fifteen hundred drawings in the ten days remaining." }, { "id": "alarcon-comedias-rivadeneyra", "title": "Comedias de don Juan Ruiz de Alarcón y Mendoza. Colección hecha é ilustrada por don Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch (Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, tomo XX)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=akJKl-ERBKUC&pg=PR5", "publisher": "Madrid, M. Rivadeneyra. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-10", "notes": "The Rivadeneyra collected edition of Alarcón's plays with Hartzenbusch's prologue, biographical apparatus and critical observations, read as page scans on 2026-08-10. Registered as secondary rather than primary: for the play texts it is a nineteenth-century edition of seventeenth-century printings, and the biographical statements are the editor's, resting on Nicolás Antonio, on Baltasar de Medina's Mexican chronicle of 1682 and on Gil de Zárate's manual, all cited at second hand. The date needs a caution that the catalogue does not give: the Google Books volume record dates this collection to 1852, but a front-matter page read here cites Ochoa's \"Tesoro del teatro español\" as \"impreso en Paris en 1858\", so the sheets in this copy belong to a later reprint of the same collection; the object that cites this source therefore attributes statements to the Rivadeneyra collection rather than to a particular year of issue. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-10: PR5, the \"Prólogo de esta edición\", with the phrase \"el esclarecido escritor americano\", the editor's four attempts and three failures, the \"Parte primera\" of Madrid 1628 naming Alarcón \"relator del Real Consejo de las Indias por Su Majestad\" with its eight comedies listed, and the \"Parte segunda\" of Barcelona 1634 with twelve; PR41, the close of the notice on the works, with Nicolás Antonio on the Mexican birth, the citation of Ochoa and of Baltasar de Medina's \"Crónica de la provincia de San Diego de Méjico\" (Mexico, 1682, folio 251) for the birth at Tasco or Tachco of a family from Alarcón in the bishopric of Cuenca, the rehabilitation of his name beside Lope, Calderón, Tirso, Rojas and Moreto, and, in the second column, Gil de Zárate's \"Resumen histórico de la literatura española\" (fourth edition, Madrid, 1851) on the derision he met from wits including Lope de Vega, the attribution of his best works to others, his presence in Europe in 1611 as licentiate in laws, his post as relator of the Council of the Indies in 1628, his death in 1639, the dedication to Ramiro Felipe de Guzmán, the ridicule of his disfigured body, the décima of Juan Fernández on his hunched back and the collection of satirical décimas after the Duke of Cea's commission; PA63, the first scene of \"El semejante á sí mismo\", with the speech on the drainage of the valley of Mexico - \"Méjico, la celebrada / Cabeza del indio mundo\", the flood of 1605, the consultation of cosmographers and master builders, the three-league mine, the fifteen hundred labourers, the three years, and the two reales on each azumbre of wine yielding a hundred thousand ducats a year; PA518, the critical observations on that comedy, quoting the same two verses and asking why the author does not praise Mexico more, with the editor's conclusion that Alarcón perhaps came to Spain very young, perhaps without ever having been in Mexico. A search within this volume for \"Corneille\" returned no hits, so the standard claim that Corneille's \"Le Menteur\" derives from Alarcón's \"La verdad sospechosa\" is NOT made from this source and does not appear in the object." }, { "id": "hervas-catalogo-lenguas-americanas-madrid-1800", "title": "Catálogo de las lenguas de las naciones conocidas, y numeracion, division, y clases de estas por la diversidad de sus idiomas y dialectos. Volúmen I. Lenguas y naciones americanas", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=yJkFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR1", "publisher": "Su autor el abate don Lorenzo Hervás; con licencia, en la Imprenta de la Administracion del Real Arbitrio de Beneficencia, Madrid año 1800; se hallará en la Librería de Ranz calle de la Cruz. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "The 1800 Madrid sheets of the American volume, read as page scans on 2026-08-11. Reliability sits below the tier because the author is an interested witness twice over: an expelled Jesuit writing in Italy about the work of expelled Jesuits, and a man staking a priority claim for a method of classification he says almost no one before him had used. He is a very good witness to what he did and to what he could not do, and a partial one as to how much it was worth. Pages opened and read - PR1, the title page with the Madrid 1800 imprint of the Imprenta de la Administracion del Real Arbitrio de Beneficencia and the volume statement \"Volúmen I. Lenguas y naciones americanas\"; PA23, article III number X, the statement of method, that the means of distinguishing and classifying the nations consists principally in the observation of their words and above all of the \"artificio gramatical\" of their languages, that this has been the principal means by which he has known the affinity or difference of the known languages and reduced them to determined classes, that the particular arrangement of words in each language does not depend on human invention nor on caprice, and that nations leaving barbarism never change the ground of the grammatical artifice of their languages, with the marginal gloss \"El artificio gramatical de las lenguas es claro distintivo de las naciones\"; PA119, treatise I, the evidential base - that after taking the greatest care to hear and be informed of the opinion of learned and practical missionaries he has himself collated the grammatical elements he collected and formed of nineteen American languages and the vocabularies of more than thirty, and found the missionaries' opinion almost always true; that the missionaries in turn rest on what \"los indios americanos\" told them, commonly found true; that those Indians call \"parientas\" all the nations speaking dialects of one parent language and rarely err when they say \"Tal y tal nacion no son nuestras parientas\"; and his own admission that transmigration, rough speech and varied pronunciation disfigure languages and that some of the missionaries he consulted may have been mistaken; PA288, a correspondent's letter printed in full, recording that he can give no distinct notice of the Sonora languages because he did not see those missionaries in America and they had not come to Italy, all having been detained in Spain; that on Maya nothing can be added beyond what came from Don Xavier Gomez, then eighty-three years old and unable to answer fully, and from Don Domingo Rodriguez, who knew Maya on reaching Italy as well as he knew Spanish; that on the other languages no individual answer is possible because almost no missionaries can now be found who understand the Lord's Prayer in them; and Hervas's own following sentence, that in the catalogue formed from what missionaries gave him by word of mouth \"faltan muchísimos\"; PA304, the Mayan grouping - that he owes the discovery of the affinity of these languages to the notice of cakchi he obtained through a cakchi Indian named Domingo Tot Baraona, servant of Fr. Miguel Zaragoza, procurator of the Dominican province of Guatemala, who came to Rome; that Tot at sixteen knew his own language perfectly and Spanish and much pocomana; that the numerals, many other words and no little of the grammatical artifice resembled maya; that he therefore inferred the Yucatecan nation had anciently extended from Yucatan to the isthmus of Panama; and the conclusion, with its hedge, \"Tienen pues afinidad las lenguas maya, cakchi, poconchi, cakchiquil y pocoman (quizá la maya sea la matriz)\"; PA348, the California entries, that plagues and misfortunes had almost extinguished the Pericú nation, three thousand souls at the start of the century and perhaps three hundred at the time of the expulsion, those speaking Spanish, so that \"la lengua pericú se debe contar ya entre las extinguidas\", with the marginal gloss \"La lengua pericú ha perecido\", and that the Loreto dialect had likewise perished because all there now spoke Spanish, so that it could no longer be known whether it had been a dialect or a parent language." }, { "id": "gumilla-orinoco-ilustrado-tomo-ii-madrid-1745", "title": "El Orinoco ilustrado, y defendido, historia natural, civil, y geographica de este gran rio, y de sus caudalosas vertientes. Tomo Segundo", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=sQzTJKx8YO0C&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Escrita por el Padre Joseph Gumilla, de la Compañia de Jesus, missionero y superior de las missiones del Orinoco, Meta y Casanare, calificador y consultor del Santo Tribunal de la Inquisicion de Cartagena de Indias; segunda impression, revista y aumentada por su mismo autor, y dividida en dos partes; en Madrid, por Manuel Fernandez, impressor de el Supremo Consejo de la Inquisicion, en la Caba Baxa, año M.DCC.XLV. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Tomo II of the 1745 second edition, read as page scans on 2026-08-11. Reliability sits well below the tier: the author is a mission superior and a consultor of the Inquisition of Cartagena writing a book whose own title says it is \"defendido\", and his explanatory frame is demonological rather than natural. What he reports having handled and watched is first-rate; what he concludes from it has to be read against that frame, and this corpus keeps the two apart. Pages opened and read - PP7, the title page with the Madrid 1745 imprint of Manuel Fernandez, the author's offices, the statement that this is the second impression revised and enlarged by the author himself and divided into two parts, and the volume statement \"Tomo Segundo\"; PA4, the opening of the natural history, where the similarity to brutes said to belong especially to Mahometans, pagans and \"Negros Africanos\" by reason of their ignorance is extended to the \"ciegas, y barbaras gentes del Orinoco\" and to many other nations \"de las dos Americas, por su natural estolidèz, y barbaridad\", with the marginal gloss \"Ceguedad grande de los Indios Gentiles\"; PA143, the head of chapter XII, \"Del mortal veneno llamado Curàre. Raro modo de fabricarle, y de su instantanea actividad\", where he states with all seriousness that comparing the hidden secrets of some poisons with the small capacity and absence of reflection of \"aquellos incultos Indios\" he infers that the knowledge and the whole procedure cannot be daughters of their weak judgement nor of their rough industry, the marginal gloss reading \"Es de creer, q el demonio les manifestó los venenos\"; PA144, the description proper - that the Caverre nation alone keeps the secret, makes the poison and draws a rich revenue from all the other nations who come to buy it; that it is sold in small new clay pots holding at most four ounces; that it resembles thick grape syrup in colour and has neither taste nor special acrimony; that it can be put in the mouth and swallowed without risk or danger provided there is no bleeding wound in the gums or elsewhere in the mouth, its whole activity and force being against the blood; and that a man wounded lightly with a Curàre arrow point, no more than a pin would scratch, dies almost instantly, with the marginal glosses \"Toda su acrimonia es contra la sangre\" and \"Con solo hacer un leve rasguño, quaxa la sangre de todo el cuerpo\"." }, { "id": "covarrubias-tesoro-1611-print", "title": "Tesoro de la lengua castellana, o española, compuesto por el Licenciado Don Sebastian de Cobarruuias Orozco, Capellan de su Magestad, Mastrescuela y Canonigo de la santa Yglesia de Cuenca, y Consultor del santo Oficio de la Inquisicion", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=YsRKAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5", "publisher": "En Madrid, por Luis Sanchez, impressor del Rey N.S., año del Señor M.DC.XI (1611); full-view digitisation of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek copy (shelf label 36616396390018), Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "The 1611 Madrid sheets themselves, read as page scans on 2026-08-11. Pages opened: PP5, the title page, with the imprint and the dedication to Felipe III; PP7 and PP8, the two leaves of the epistle \"AL LETOR\", carrying the account of language infused into Adam, the borrowing of the word Tesoro from earlier \"diccionarios copiosos\", the fight with \"las lenguas estrangeras\", the credit to Diego de Urrea and \"el padre Guadix\" for Arabic, the admission that vulgar etymologies are printed beside the legitimate ones, the alphabetisation by sound, and the request to be corrected in another impression; PP9 and PP10, the royal cedula of privilege dated at Lerma 6 May 1610 with its fifty-thousand maravedi penalty, countersigned Iorge de Touar; PP11, the tassa of Geronimo Nuñez de Leon, Madrid 14 November 1611, pricing the book at 346 pliegos and fifty reales and thirty maravedis; PP12, the errata of the corrector Murcia de la Llana, Madrid 19 October 1611; folio 150 recto (pid PA150), the BRAÇO entry, read as a specimen of the article structure; and folios 163 recto, 164 recto, 165 verso, 166 recto and 166 verso (pids PA163, PA164, PA165-IA1, PA166, PA166-IA1), the run of the CAB and CAC alphabet, opened to see whether the American loan-words had reached the dictionary. In this volume PA*n* is folio *n* recto and PA*n*-IA1 the verso; the Primera parte runs to folio 602 and a Segunda parte of 79 folios follows, which was not opened. Reliability is set at 0.9 rather than higher because this is the author's own account of his own book: the preface is testimony about method, not an independent audit of it." }, { "id": "clark-2013-antivenereal-trials-mexico", "title": "Appealing to the Republic of Letters: An Autopsy of Anti-venereal Trials in Eighteenth-century Mexico", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3899930/", "publisher": "Social History of Medicine 27(1):2-21, Oxford University Press (open access via PubMed Central)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Fiona Clark, 2013, DOI 10.1093/shm/hkt045. Full text read on 2026-08-11. Peer-reviewed article in the journal of the Society for the Social History of Medicine, built on the manuscript Relacion historico-critica of Daniel O'Sullivan alongside the printed accounts of Francisco Xavier de Balmis and Jose Ignacio Garcia Jove. Supplies: the July 1790 approach of Nicolas Viana to Archbishop Alonso Nunez de Haro y Peralta; the begonia and maguey basis of the remedy; the two trial stages at the Hospital General de San Andres (20 men and 12 women for one month, then 40 men and 20 women for two months) run without other medicines; the role of the Protomedicato and its president Garcia Jove; Balmis's 1792 journey to Madrid, his 1794 Demostracion de las eficaces virtudes nuevamente descubiertas and its 1795 Rome translation; the prohibition of mercury in favour of the new method; the death of a soldier under the treatment; O'Sullivan's corresponding membership of the Royal Academy of Medicine in October 1793 and his subsequent dismissal; and Balmis's 1795 honorary court appointment. The article is explicitly revisionist about Balmis, which is why claims drawn from it are stated as its findings rather than as settled fact." }, { "id": "leffler-wainsztein-2016-cataract-latin-america", "title": "The first cataract surgeons in Latin America: 1611-1830", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4841434/", "publisher": "Clinical Ophthalmology 10:679-694, Dove Medical Press (open access via PubMed Central)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Christopher T. Leffler and Ruben D. Wainsztein, 2016, DOI 10.2147/OPTH.S105825. Full text read on 2026-08-11. Archival and newspaper-based survey of eye surgery in the Spanish American territories. Supplies: Francisco Drago couching in Mexico City by 1611 and for at least fourteen years; Melchor Vasquez de Valenzuela probably couching in Lima by 1697 on partly satirical evidence; the 1568 Peruvian examining fee of 19 pesos for oculists and the 1777 Venezuelan protomedicato's regulation of them; the 1793 Caracas fee schedule pricing extraction at 50 pesos against couching at 25; the Havana newspaper advertisement of 6 June 1793; Narciso Esparragosa's three documented extractions in Guatemala City on 22 November 1797; Joseph Morales y Quinones extracting in Mexico by 1797; Jose Miguel Munoz's self-instruction and his banquillo of about 1816 with eight free operations on poor patients; Jose Maria Vargas's Edinburgh and London training, first documented enucleation about 1819 and Caracas teaching from 1825. Reliability is set below the tier because the journal is a lower-prestige open-access title and because the authors themselves describe the record as fragmentary. The bibliographic detail was checked against the article itself, not against the archives it cites." }, { "id": "chinn-gray-larson-2023-pages", "title": "Overcoming Obstacles: The Legacy of Fidel Pages, Founder of the Epidural, 100 Years After His Passing", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10840793/", "publisher": "Anesthesia & Analgesia 138(2):475-479, International Anesthesia Research Society (open access via PubMed Central)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Gregory A. Chinn, Andrew T. Gray and Merlin D. Larson, DOI 10.1213/ANE.0000000000006706; published online 4 December 2023, issue dated February 2024. Full text read on 2026-08-11. Supplies: the 1921 publication of Anestesia Metamerica in the Revista Espanola de Cirugia as the first description of human thoracolumbar epidural anaesthesia; the coining of the term; Pages's birth at Huesca in 1886 and death in a road accident on 9 July 1923 at 37; his career as a military surgeon and editor of the Revista de Sanidad Militar; Achille Dogliotti's loss-of-resistance technique of the 1930s, his initial failure to credit Pages and his acknowledgement in 1939 after Alberto Gutierrez's advocacy. It is a commemorative historical essay rather than an archival study, and it says of Dogliotti that \"the intentionality of his omission is not known\"; both facts are reflected in the confidences here. One biographical detail in the piece as read - a medical degree from Zaragoza in 1901 - is arithmetically incompatible with the 1886 birth date it also gives, so no claim in this corpus rests on it." }, { "id": "hewson-tedore-hardman-2024-neuraxial", "title": "Impact of spinal or epidural anaesthesia on perioperative outcomes in adult noncardiac surgery: a narrative review of recent evidence", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11282476/", "publisher": "British Journal of Anaesthesia 133(2):380-399, Elsevier for the British Journal of Anaesthesia (open access via PubMed Central)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "David W. Hewson, Tiffany R. Tedore and Jonathan G. Hardman, 2024, DOI 10.1016/j.bja.2024.04.044. Read on 2026-08-11 for one purpose only: to confirm that a current, high-impact clinical review states the attribution in its own voice - \"Subarachnoid and epidural anaesthesia were first described by August Bier in 1898 and Fidel Pages in 1921, respectively.\" Used in this corpus solely as independent corroboration of the priority attribution, not for any biographical or historical detail." }, { "id": "lacy-niebla-cruz-badiano-2024", "title": "Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis. Codice Martin de la Cruz-Juan Badiano", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11160528/", "publisher": "Ma Carmen Lacy-Niebla, Archivos de Cardiologia de Mexico 94(1):1-6, 2024; DOI 10.24875/ACM.23000100, PMID 38507326. Open access through PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Read in full on 2026-08-11. A history-of-medicine article in a cardiology journal, which is where its one weak passage comes from - a retrospective priority claim that the codex described the main symptoms of angina pectoris two hundred years before Heberden. That claim is carried in this corpus at low confidence and attributed to this author rather than stated as fact. The descriptive matter it supplies is precise and checkable - the completion date of 22 July 1552, the count of 227 plants with 185 images and 64 named without one, the 140 hand-painted pages on Italian paper at 15 by 20 centimetres, the head-to-foot arrangement by disease, the three vital forces tonalli, teyolia and ihiyotl, the route through the Barberini collection to the Vatican Library in 1902, the location of the manuscript by Charles Upson Clark in 1929 and its return by John Paul II in 1990." }, { "id": "de-smedt-de-cruz-cosmovision-2025", "title": "Cosmovision as Cognitive Technology: The Case of Mesoamerican Medicinal Knowledge", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12831609/", "publisher": "Johan De Smedt and Helen De Cruz, Topics in Cognitive Science 18(1):92-110, 2025; DOI 10.1111/tops.70008, PMID 40294406. Open access through PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Read in full on 2026-08-11. Two philosophers of science reading the Cruz-Badiano codex as a knowledge system rather than as a curiosity. It is the source in this batch that supplies the costs - that the book was made as a fundraising gift for Charles V to keep the Colegio de Santa Cruz open and that the attempt failed, that indigenous men were barred from the priesthood from 1555, that ritual and appeals to non-Christian supernatural intervention are absent from a text written by recent converts who had an interest in concealing them, that the herbarium form is a European convention imposed on Nahua material, and that remedies from the codex entered Spanish pharmacopoeia with the indigenous contribution unnamed. It also states the live scholarly disagreement over the hot-cold system, naming George Foster's argument that it is an imported folk variant of Greco-Persian humoral pathology and giving the authors' reasons for preferring a Mesoamerican origin." }, { "id": "rojas-herbal-regulation-2022", "title": "Historical Aspects of Herbal Use and Comparison of Current Regulations of Herbal Products between Mexico, Canada and the United States of America", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9740500/", "publisher": "Patricia Rojas and others, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19(23):15690, 2022; DOI 10.3390/ijerph192315690, PMID 36497761. Open access through PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-11 for its historical section only. A regulatory review whose history is a summary rather than original research, which is why its reliability is set below the other two - it is used here for one corroborating statement, that the 1552 codex is the first book of medicinal plants of the indigenous peoples of the American continent, and for its framing that the conquest destroyed a great deal of the knowledge that the codex then partly recovered." }, { "id": "vanegas-espejo-narino-2021", "title": "Comment on the article \"With regard to the bicentennial of the independence of Colombia. Reading practices of Antonio Narino and the development of a presumably effective vaccine against smallpox\"", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8580099/", "publisher": "Esteban Vanegas, Biomedica 41(Suppl 2):29-36, 2021; DOI 10.7705/biomedica.5723, PMID 34669276. Open access through PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Read in full on 2026-08-11. A peer-reviewed comment rather than a research article, and it is used here as the anchor for Eugenio Espejo because it is the only reachable scholarly text that treats the 1785 Reflexiones directly. Its argumentative character is an asset for the counterpoint and a limit on the descriptive claims - it is explicit that Francisco Gil favoured a cautious, hospital-based inoculation and enumerated the risks, that the Real Tribunal del Protomedicato held inoculation to be ineffective and dangerous, and that Narino's 1802 claim to have made a working vaccine in prison is highly improbable for want of bovine lymph. Bibliographic detail on the Quito edition itself is thin here, so the printing claims are carried at reduced confidence." }, { "id": "moreno-narino-viruela-2020", "title": "With regard to the bicentennial of the independence of Colombia. Reading practices of Antonio Narino and the development of a presumably effective vaccine against smallpox", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7449111/", "publisher": "Sandra-Milena Moreno and Freddy Moreno, Biomedica 40(Suppl 1):8-19, 2020; DOI 10.7705/biomedica.5024, PMID 32463602. Open access through PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-11. The article Vanegas is answering, and registered so that both sides of the disagreement over Narino are cited from their own texts rather than from one side's account of the other. Supplies the full title of Francisco Gil's 1784 Disertacion fisico-medica, the epidemic years 1782, 1783, 1785 and 1801, Mutis as promoter of preventive measures in New Granada, Narino's letter to the viceroy of 30 July 1802, and the arrival of Josep Salvany at Santafe de Bogota on 17 December 1804 with two carrier children. It does not mention Espejo, which is itself evidence for how far the Quito text has dropped out of the standard account." }, { "id": "revista-buenos-aires-miralla-1866", "title": "Don Jose Antonio Miralla (biographical essay), in Revista de Buenos Aires: historia americana, literatura, derecho y variedades, volume 10", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=XPovAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA492", "publisher": "Edited by Miguel Navarro Viola and Vicente Gregorio Quesada; Buenos Aires, imprenta de Mayo, 1866. University of Texas copy, full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.65, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Pages 491 to 495 read as page scans on 2026-08-11. Reliability sits well below the tier and the object built on it carries low confidences, because this is a single nineteenth-century periodical essay written by an advocate: it is arguing that Spanish America produced more learned men than any other European colony, and it ends the passage by predicting that Buenaventura Suarez will one day be placed beside Franklin. The same advocacy makes it an unusually good witness against itself - the surrounding pages attack the colonial education system for keeping able men in perpetual childishness and describe autos de fe for imaginary offences, and the Suarez passage itself records that the astronomer got no help of any kind, built his instruments out of forest wood with his own hands where bronze or platina was needed, and that the colleges which furnished their sacristies with gold and silver never sent to Europe for an instrument. The essay attributes the description of the wooden instruments to Felix de Azara's then-unpublished travels to the mission pueblos, where they lay among the useless lumber of the granaries and lofts. It also states that the first edition of Suarez's lunario was printed at Lisbon; that bibliographical point is reported here as the essay's statement rather than as established fact, since no printing of the work could be reached from this container." }, { "id": "kuno-2024-yellow-fever-transmission", "title": "Mechanisms of Yellow Fever Transmission: Gleaning the Overlooked Records of Importance and Identifying Problems, Puzzles, Serious Issues, Surprises and Research Questions", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10820296/", "publisher": "Goro Kuno (formerly Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins); Viruses 16(1):84, MDPI, 4 January 2024; doi 10.3390/v16010084", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Open-access review by a career arbovirologist, read in full text on 2026-08-11. Used here for the critical apparatus around Finlay rather than for praise of him: the section on the early proponents of the insect theory (John Crawford in Dutch Guiana, 1807; Beauperthuy; Nott), the statement that Finlay's 1881 theory \"was pivotal in the historic success of the Reed Commission in 1900\", the report of François Delaporte's archival conclusion that Finlay could not have conceived mosquito transmission without reading Patrick Manson, Aristides Agramonte's ambiguous placement of Finlay after Manson and Beauperthuy, Henry R. Carter's 1898 discovery of the extrinsic incubation period and the judgement that integrating it into Finlay's theory \"was indispensable for the success of the Reed Commission\", and the observation that before 1900 Finlay was in effect testing mechanical rather than biological transmission. Reference [11] of this paper is Finlay's own 1881 Havana publication." }, { "id": "ferreira-moreno-2016-finlay", "title": "Evocation to the Dr. Carlos J. Finlay Barres on the centennial of his death", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4867519/", "publisher": "Víctor Guillermo Ferreira Moreno, Hospital Pediátrico de Matanzas / Universidad de Ciencias Médicas de Matanzas, Cuba; Colombia Médica (Cali) 47(1):63-66, Universidad del Valle, 30 March 2016", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Open-access commemorative essay, read in full (English and Spanish parallel text) on 2026-08-11. Reliability deliberately set low: this is an \"evocation\" written for a centenary in the author's national tradition, its register is devotional (\"true genius\", \"the Christ of the redemptive doctrine\"), and it argues a case rather than weighing one. It is cited here only for datable, checkable particulars — the 18 February 1881 Washington announcement to the International Sanitary Conference, the 14 August 1881 reading at the Academy of Sciences of Havana and the silence that met it, Claudio Delgado and Adela Shine as his supporters, the quoted Leonard Wood government-report sentence, the quoted 1910 Gorgas letter, and the list of Nobel nominations 1904-1915 — and never for its evaluative claims." }, { "id": "boullerne-feinstein-2020-rio-hortega", "title": "History of Neuroscience I. Pío del Río-Hortega (1882-1945): The Discoverer of Microglia and Oligodendroglia", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7580141/", "publisher": "Anne I. Boullerne and Douglas L. Feinstein, University of Illinois at Chicago; ASN Neuro 12:1759091420953259, SAGE, 18 October 2020; doi 10.1177/1759091420953259", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Open-access history-of-neuroscience article with an annotated bibliography, read in full on 2026-08-11. Supports the Valladolid fine arts and medical training, the move to Madrid in 1912 to work with Nicolás Achúcarro, the silver carbonate modification of the Golgi method, the 1919 and 1921 papers introducing microglia and oligodendroglia and their deduced functions, the 1918 move to Cajal's laboratory and the 1920 expulsion, the founding of his own laboratory at the Residencia de Estudiantes, the Nobel nominations for 1929 and 1937, Cajal's acceptance of oligodendroglia only in a personal letter of 1929, the 1936-1940 Paris-Oxford-Buenos Aires exile, the 1942 founding of Archivos de Histología Normal y Patológica, and the death in Buenos Aires in 1945. The annotations to the bibliography are explicit that Río-Hortega never trained with Cajal and that Cajal never acknowledged oligodendroglia in a scientific publication." }, { "id": "nombela-2021-rio-hortega-women-disciples", "title": "Women Neuroscientist Disciples of Pío del Río-Hortega: the Cajal School Spreads in Europe and South America", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8143187/", "publisher": "Cristina Nombela, Emilio Fernández-Egea, Elisa Giné, Yulia Worbe, Juan del Río-Hortega Bereciartu and Fernando de Castro; Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 15:666419, 11 May 2021", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Open-access archival study, read in full on 2026-08-11. One co-author is Río-Hortega's grandnephew, which is declared in the paper and is the reason the reliability is not set higher; the factual scaffolding is nonetheless documented from the Legado Cajal, the Archivo Pío del Río-Hortega at Valladolid and the Archivo Fernando de Castro. Supports the Argentine years in detail: arrival in Buenos Aires on 28 August 1940, the earlier 1925 lecture tour to Argentina and Uruguay at the invitation of the Institución Cultural Española de Buenos Aires, the same body's building of a replica of his Madrid laboratory opened in 1941 and named Laboratorio Ramón y Cajal, Bernardo Houssay and Moisés Polak as organisers of the move, the Argentine disciples (Polak, Prado, Washington Buño, Pardiñas, Celener, Zimman, Aranovitch, Ojea, Amanda Pellegrino de Iraldi), the founding of Archivos de Histología Normal y Patológica at the University of Buenos Aires in 1942, 22 papers and one book in his almost five Argentine years, his death on 1 June 1945, the offer of the Laboratorio Ramón y Cajal to Fernando de Castro and his refusal, the onward line from Pellegrino de Iraldi to Eduardo De Robertis's synaptic vesicle work and to Claudio Cuello at McGill, and the 1986 repatriation of Río-Hortega's remains to Valladolid, received by Asunción Amo del Río and Severo Ochoa." }, { "id": "ganger-2015-medicinal-plants-trade", "title": "World Trade in Medicinal Plants from Spanish America, 1717-1815", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4304538/", "publisher": "Medical History 59(1):44-62, Cambridge University Press", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Stefanie Ganger, 2015. DOI 10.1017/mdh.2014.70, PMID 25498437, open access under CC BY. Full text read on 2026-08-11 in the PMC deposit, and the figures quoted in this corpus re-checked against the article on a second reading the same day. What was read and verified - the Cadiz import arithmetic (83,387 arrobas between 1717 and 1738, an average of 3,970 arrobas or 45 tonnes a year; 418,977 arrobas between 1747 and 1778, 13,515 arrobas or 155 tonnes a year, a tripling); the mid-century composition (an annual average of 64 tonnes of \"purges\" and 83 tonnes of cinchona); the consumption estimate for around 1750 (a European population of 71.7 million, and 83 tonnes of cinchona sufficient for some 1.7 million cases of malaria, 2.3 per cent of that population, every year); the sarsaparilla figure of one dose per every two people imported into England by the mid-eighteenth century; the sentence crediting Andean, Tupi-Guarani and Araucanian understanding with identifying, collecting and preparing ipecacuanha, cinchona and canchalagua; the sentence that by the eighteenth century that involvement \"was also becoming a cultural trope, a discourse, for European naturalists, merchants and officials to capitalise on\"; the 1774 estimate by Spanish officials that of the total trade in cinchona, \"a plant that grows only in the dominions of His Majesty\", Spanish merchants handled but \"one-sixth\"; the guaiacum sentence, that it was hailed as an anti-syphilitic early in the sixteenth century and \"fell out of favour within decades: it was found by experience that people suffering from syphilis were not benefited by its administration\"; and the Mainz price series (red cinchona bark at 55 gulden a pound, lesser quality between 9 and 25, against an annual worker's or artisan's income of some 80 to 100 gulden at most). The article's own archival base is the Archivo del Palacio Real, the Archivo General de Indias and Cadiz trade documentation; this corpus did not open those, which is why the tier here is secondary and not primary." }, { "id": "ramos-2013-indian-hospitals-andes", "title": "Indian Hospitals and Government in the Colonial Andes", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3867836/", "publisher": "Medical History 57(2):186-205, Cambridge University Press", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Gabriela Ramos, April 2013. DOI 10.1017/mdh.2012.102, PMID 24070345, open access in PMC. Full text read on 2026-08-11 and the quoted passages re-checked on a second reading the same day. What was read and verified - the foundation sequence (\"While the Indian hospital of Lima was begun at the initiative of its archbishop in 1548, those of the principal viceregal cities such as Trujillo (1551), Piura (1553), Cuzco (1556), and Huamanga (1556) were created by order of their town councils\"); Toledo's order \"that a portion of indigenous tribute, known as the tomin de hospital, be earmarked to support the Indian hospitals\"; the 1619 Lobo Guerrero inspection tally, verbatim (\"Of the 152 places visited ... in fifty-seven there was no hospital, and in twenty-one the inspectors left no clear indication of whether one existed ... Of the seventy-four remaining villages that did have a hospital, in sixty-three cases the inspectors indicated that these were deserted or that the inhabitants did not want to make use of them\"); the Chucuito arrangements from Bishop Valencia's report (a hospital in an equipped house in each of the seven towns, maize harvests allotted from the distant lowlands of Moquegua and Larecaja, three surgeons for the seven towns and an Indian barber in each); the refusal (\"The Indians referred to the hospital as 'the house of the dead'\") and the 1567 curacas' preference for their homes, \"where they could eat their fill, and which were not so full of lice\"; the 1588-9 smallpox loan of 2,000 pesos from Lima diocese community funds to the hospital of Santa Ana and the Gentil salary suit decided against the Indians; the Marca seizure, the hospital facilities \"seized and ruined by the mayordomos of a powerful rancher and landowner of the province, who used them to house livestock and warehouse wool\"; the Yauyos 1629 petition, that since Archbishop Loayza it had been customary for the hospitals to have Indian mayordomos and that if they were given charge \"there would be no Spaniards and clerics despoiling the poor of their property\"; and the 1666 royal order amending and removing the tomin because \"the hospitals have died out and come to an end in the Indian reducciones\", with corregidores continuing to collect it in some provinces. The classification of Indians as miserables and the wording attributed to Toledo about Andeans and charitable instincts were read on the first pass only and are carried at lower confidence in the object." }, { "id": "stampella-2013-iberian-fruit-trees", "title": "What the Iberian Conquest Bequeathed to Us: The Fruit Trees Introduced in Argentine Subtropic - Their History and Importance in Present Traditional Medicine", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3857738/", "publisher": "Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2013:868394, Hindawi", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Pablo C. Stampella, Daniela Alejandra Lambare, Norma I. Hilgert and Maria Lelia Pochettino, 2013. DOI 10.1155/2013/868394, PMID 24348725, open access under a Creative Commons Attribution licence. Full text read on 2026-08-11 and the quoted passages re-checked the same day. What was read and verified - the citrus arrival on the second voyage, with the Spanish of the chronicle given in the article (\"pepitas y simientes de naranjas, limones y cidras, (ademas de) melones y de toda hortaliza\") taken from Gomera; the naturalisation sentence (\"By the last quarter of the 16th century, several representatives of genus Citrus, as 'oranges' and 'lemons,' were already naturalized in the Americas\"); the peach route into the north-west, \"introduced from Chile - following the route of the Pacific - by the decade of 1550 by the expedition of Nunez de Prado. They thrived and by December 1552 a wealthy fructification was described\"; the Jesuit material, the orange groves \"belonging to the Tupambae (that were those community gardens for the production in large scale)\" and the use of Paucke and of Brabo's inventories of the Jesuit expulsion to reconstruct what was grown; the statement that native people \"took an active part, either incorporating as rejecting, redefining, or abandoning customs, objects, and products\"; the survival of local varieties \"recognized as an identity factor by the settlers: 'duraznos de la Quebrada'\"; and the article's own framing sentence that \"the breakup of natives spaces occurred along with the establishment of a new regime of exploitation and production, either politically or culturally imposed by the Europeans\". Reliability is set at 0.8 rather than 0.9: this is an ethnobotany journal rather than a history journal, and its historical sections rest on secondary literature and published chronicles rather than on archival work of its own." }, { "id": "acuna-soto-2002-megadrought-megadeath", "title": "Megadrought and Megadeath in 16th Century Mexico", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2730237/", "publisher": "Emerging Infectious Diseases 8(4):360-362, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Rodolfo Acuna-Soto, David W. Stahle, Malcolm K. Cleaveland and Matthew D. Therrell, April 2002. DOI 10.3201/eid0804.010175, open access in PMC. Full text read on 2026-08-11. What was read and verified - the attribution of the 1576 clinical description to \"Francisco Hernandez, Proto-Medico of New Spain and former physician to King Philip II\"; the symptom list quoted verbatim in the object (\"high fever, severe headache, vertigo, black tongue, dark urine, dysentery, severe abdominal and thoracic pain, large nodules behind the ears that often invaded the neck and face, acute neurologic disorders, and profuse bleeding from the nose, eyes, and mouth with death frequently occurring in 3 to 4 days\"); the 1576-1578 mortality figure (\"an additional 2 to 2.5 million people, or about 50% of the remaining native population\"); the tree-ring reconstruction from Durango placing both epidemics inside \"the 16th century megadrought, the most severe and sustained drought to impact north central Mexico in the past 600 years\"; and the authors' own two caveats, that \"the disease described by Dr. Hernandez in 1576 is difficult to link to any specific etiologic agent or disease known today\" and that \"the hypothesized viral agent responsible for cocoliztli remains to be identified\". Reliability is set at 0.85 rather than higher because the paper's central proposal - an indigenous rodent-borne haemorrhagic fever amplified by drought - is a hypothesis the authors themselves mark as unproven, and because a competing bacterial explanation has since been advanced from ancient DNA." }, { "id": "acuna-soto-2004-when-half-the-population-died", "title": "When half of the population died: the epidemic of hemorrhagic fevers of 1576 in Mexico", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7110390/", "publisher": "FEMS Microbiology Letters 240(1):1-5, Federation of European Microbiological Societies", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Rodolfo Acuna-Soto, David W. Stahle, Matthew D. Therrell, Richard D. Griffin and Malcolm K. Cleaveland. DOI 10.1016/j.femsle.2004.09.011; the PMC record dates the issue 2006 January while the DOI and volume place the paper in volume 240 of 2004, so no claim in this corpus rests on its year. Open access in PMC, full text read on 2026-08-11. What was read and verified - the census arithmetic quoted verbatim in the object (\"In 1570, a total of 2,098,426 individuals lived in those 157 communities. Two years after the epidemic, by 1580, the population in the same places was reduced to 1,020,524. This represents 1,077,902 deaths, or a population loss of 51.36%\"), together with the statement of method that the authors retrieved all available data from both censuses and obtained information for 196 cities and districts, of which 157 carried usable quantitative data; the long-run figures (\"In 1519, the year of the arrival of the Spaniards, the population in Mexico was estimated to be between 15 and 30 million inhabitants. Eighty-one years later, in 1600, only two million remained\"); the clinical course (\"The disease had a very short course, lasting three to five days. It started abruptly with high fever, vertigo, severe headache, insatiable thirst, red eyes and weak pulse. Patients became intensely jaundiced, very anxious, demented and restless\", with hard painful nodules behind one or both ears and blood flowing \"from the ears, anus, vagina, mouth and nose\"); the autopsy passage in full (\"Some autopsies were performed and the reports described a very enlarged and hard liver, lung hemorrhage and splenomegaly. Reportedly, none of the physicians that did those bare-hand autopsies acquired the disease\"); and the conclusion \"At the present time, cocoliztli cannot be definitely linked to any known disease\". Checked specifically and recorded here because it bounds what may be claimed: the names Hernandez, Lopez de Hinojoso and Farfan appear in this paper's reference list only and not in its body text, and the word protomedico does not appear in it at all." }, { "id": "de-dios-2021-salmonella-barcelona-1652", "title": "Salmonella enterica from a soldier from the 1652 siege of Barcelona (Spain) supports historical transatlantic epidemic contacts", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8430385/", "publisher": "iScience 24(9):103021, Cell Press", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Toni de-Dios et al., 24 August 2021. DOI 10.1016/j.isci.2021.103021, open access in PMC. Full text read on 2026-08-11. What was read and verified - the recovery from a soldier buried at the 1652 siege of Barcelona of \"a large number of sequence reads mapping to Salmonella enterica Paratyphi C\" whose genome \"clusters with colonial Mexican strains\"; the authors' reading of the Mexican evidence, that \"detection of Paratyphi C in association with victims of the Cocoliztli lends support to the hypothesis that S. enterica was a contributor to epidemics during recent historical times\"; and their explicit restraint, that Paratyphi C has been suggested to have been a globally distributed pathogen of the past and that \"more evidence based on genome-wide data from different locations and time periods is needed to assess its putative role as an epidemic pathogen\". Used in this corpus only for the competing bacterial explanation of cocoliztli and its stated limits; the paper carries no mortality estimate for sixteenth-century Mexico and none is taken from it." }, { "id": "munoz-devesa-rico-becerra-2025-san-juan-de-dios", "title": "Hospital Care and the Conception of Death in the Hospitaller Order of Saint John of God in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Spain", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12229258/", "publisher": "Nursing Inquiry 32(3):e70042, Wiley", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Angel Munoz Devesa and Juan Ignacio Rico Becerra, 2025. DOI 10.1111/nin.70042, open access in PMC. Full text read on 2026-08-11. What was read and verified - John of God (1495-1550) and the hospital \"he founded ... in Granada in 1537\"; the formalisation of the order after his death in 1550 by Anton Martin, Pedro Velasco and Pedro Soriano; papal recognition \"through the papal bull Licet ex debito, issued by Pope Pius V in 1572\"; the quoted articles of the 1585 Rule and Constitutions (\"The principal purpose of this hospital is the care and comfort of the poor of Jesus Christ\", the Brother Superior to be \"gentle, compassionate, and charitable with the poor\", \"The bodies shall be shrouded with dignity\") and of the 1611 Constitution (a chaplain or brother to \"remain constantly at their side\" of the dying, and \"take particular care and exercise great diligence to ensure that the sacraments are administered to the sick, so that no one dies without them\"); the statement on women, that the order was \"canonically male and governed by the spiritual norms of Augustinian religious life\" yet \"its hospitals systematically included female patients and integrated women into caregiving structures\", \"received in dedicated wards, attended by female personnel such as the Madre Enfermera Mayor and her assistants\"; and the diffusion sentence, hospitals by the end of the seventeenth century in Granada, Seville and Toledo, in Italy, France, Poland and Portugal, and \"beyond the continent to the Americas (e.g., Cartagena de Indias and Mexico City), Asia (the Philippines), and Africa (Mozambique)\". Reliability is set at 0.7, well below the tier, and deliberately - this is a hermeneutic reading of the order's own constitutions, manuals, hagiographies and spiritual rules, it reaches no critical or negative finding about the order's care in the whole of its length, and it states no limitations section. It is good evidence of what the order's written norms required and poor evidence of what its hospitals delivered, and the objects citing it say so." }, { "id": "fonseca-urrutia-real-hacienda-iv", "title": "Historia general de Real Hacienda, tomo IV", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=cj5KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA488", "publisher": "Escrita por D. Fabian de Fonseca y D. Carlos de Urrutia por orden del virey conde de Revillagigedo; Mexico, Imprenta de Vicente G. Torres, 1845-1853. Tomo IV. Full-view digitisation of the University of Michigan copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-11: the half-title (PA1), the superior oficio de aprobacion (PA5), and the chapter \"Caja de Acapulco\" at PA473, PA474, PA476, PA488, PA489 and PA496, which prints the royal cedula of 8 April 1734 on the Philippines trade in full, with its dating clause and countersignature. The volume is a printed compilation of royal orders assembled from the Mexican treasury archive by two royal officials working under the viceroy who commissioned them, so what it transmits verbatim is the crown's text, at one remove from the original despatch and framed by compilers writing for the administration they served. Reliability is set below the tier for that reason, and because the compilation records what was decreed rather than what was shipped." }, { "id": "lazarillo-ciegos-caminantes-1773", "title": "El Lazarillo de ciegos caminantes desde Buenos-Ayres hasta Lima", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=kZNeAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP11", "publisher": "Por Don Calixto Bustamante Carlos Inca, alias Concolorcorvo; sacado de las memorias de Don Alonso Carrio de la Vandera. Con licencia, en Gijon, en la Imprenta de la Rovada, ano de 1773. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-11: the title page (PP11) and the pages on the route from Buenos Aires to Santiago de Chile (PP230) and on the mule levy for the mails near Potosi (PP284). Read further on 2026-08-16: PP152-PP153, the four reales of droving from the Buenos Aires campaigns to Cordoba, the eight reales a head of the invernada with its six per hundred of refaccion, the twenty-six reales of cost against thirty-six of value, the drove of six hundred mules advancing seven hundred and fifty pesos, and the Asamblea General at Salta with its departure from Cordoba at the end of April; PP177, the section headed ORIGEN DE LAS MULAS and the fostering of a donkey foal in the flayed skin of the mare's own; PP193, the mortality of mules in the sierra blamed on the Indians in the same sentence that says the corregidor allots them one apiece, and the disabled mules that pass to them for short hauls; PP195, the coastal muleteers' paid alfalfa and maize cobs, and the five-year sierra mule set against the twenty-year coastal one. Reliability is set well below the tier for two reasons internal to the book. Its authorship is unsettled on its own paratext - the title page credits a Cuzco-born narrator writing extracts from the inspector's memoranda, and the narrative has the inspector addressing that narrator by name and claiming to have given him the nickname. And the book is an interested account: the postal reform it records is the reform of the party the narrator is travelling with, praised in its own pages." }, { "id": "perez-perez-vallejo-2023-vaccine-latin-america", "title": "The Smallpox Vaccine in Latin America: A New Approach (1801-1804)", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10302900/", "publisher": "Antonio Perez Perez and Jose Ramon Vallejo, Medicina (Kaunas) 59(6):1093, 2023; DOI 10.3390/medicina59061093; open access under CC BY 4.0, read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Full text read on 2026-08-11. An archival study arguing that Jenner's vaccine reached the Spanish American territories through several channels independent of the Real Expedicion Filantropica de la Vacuna, and naming the navy surgeons who introduced it: Francisco Oller y Ferrer in Puerto Rico (28 November 1803, over 1,500 vaccinated before Balmis landed on 9 February 1804), Alonso Ruiz Moreno in Cumana, Margarita and Guayana, Tomas Romay y Chacon with Bernardo Cozar y Delgado in Cuba (12 February 1804), Miguel Jose Monzon y Farnel at Sisal in Yucatan (over 1,227 vaccinated with fluid from Veracruz), Jose Maria Ledesma y Borquez in Guatemala (16 June 1804), Angel Hidalgo at Cartagena de Indias and Santa Marta, Lorenzo Verges in New Granada, Pedro Belomo y Ceballos in Peru (23 October 1805), Santiago Maria del Granado in Charcas, Cristobal Martin de Montufar at Montevideo (5 July 1805) and Jose Maria Gomez at La Serena. It states its evidence base as 42 documentary sources, 29 manuscript and 13 printed, 44.8 per cent from the Archivo General de Indias, 34.5 per cent from the Cadiz faculty of medicine and 13.8 per cent from the Navy archive \"Alvaro de Bazan\", and quotes Gregorio Maranon (1948) on what Balmis's achievement actually was. Reliability is set below the tier because the priority claims rest on this one revisionist study, because several of the archival documents are cited in the authors' own English rendering, and because the article's thesis is explicitly a corrective to the standard account rather than a settled consensus." }, { "id": "ranscombe-2022-vaccine-voyages", "title": "Vaccine Voyages: where science meets slavery", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9023002/", "publisher": "Peter Ranscombe, The Lancet Infectious Diseases 22(7):956, 2022; DOI 10.1016/S1473-3099(22)00270-5; read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Read in full on 2026-08-11. A short review of the \"Vaccine Voyages\" exhibition, used here only for what it states about who carried the live vaccine: the twenty-two orphaned boys of the Real Expedicion Filantropica, that \"additional enslaved children, mostly girls, were then used to carry the virus between the Atlantic ports\", that \"Spanish governors and doctors also used enslaved girls to move the virus between islands, using lymph fluid harvested from them\", and the sentence the reviewer reports as repeated across the exhibition panels, \"We do not know what happened to these enslaved people\". Reliability is set well below the tier because this is journalism reviewing an exhibition rather than primary research or a peer-reviewed study, and because it gives no archival citations of its own; it is cited here for the existence and framing of the claim, not for numbers." }, { "id": "schottenhammer-2020-peruvian-balsam", "title": "\"Peruvian balsam\": an example of transoceanic transfer of medicinal knowledge", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7650155/", "publisher": "Angela Schottenhammer, Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 16:69, 2020; DOI 10.1186/s13002-020-00407-y; open access under CC BY 4.0, read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Full text read on 2026-08-11. Establishes that the balsam called Peruvian is not Peruvian - the tree, Myroxylon balsamum var. pereirae, grows on the balsam coast of El Salvador between Ajacutla and La Libertad and elsewhere in Central America and Mexico - gives the ancient native name hoitziloxitl, the tapping technique (25 to 28 rectangular holes 15 to 16 cm deep, sap flowing 5 to 8 days, 3 to 4 lb a year from a healthy tree), the presence of balsam gatherers living near the trees by the early to mid eighteenth century who sold sap on to merchants, the galleon cargoes that carried it across the Pacific, its entry into Chinese and Japanese medical literature through Matteo Ricci's map of 1602 and Giulio Aleni's Zhifang waiji of 1623 and through Arai Hakuseki, and the methods used to detect adulteration with raw sugar or cacao husks. Reliability is set below the tier because the article's centre of gravity is the Asian reception rather than the American origin, because it states its own limits on composition, merchant networks and military use, and because two separate readings of the article gave inconsistent accounts of the port from which the Pacific cargoes departed, so no port is asserted from it here." }, { "id": "guarneri-2021-myroxylon-pereirae", "title": "Myroxylon pereirae (balsam of Peru): Still worth testing?", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8453940/", "publisher": "F. Guarneri, M. Corazza, L. Stingeni and others, Contact Dermatitis 85(3), 2021; DOI 10.1111/cod.13839; open access under CC BY 4.0, read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-11 for the present-day standing of the substance only. A multicentre patch-test study of 12,030 patients in which 439 (3.6 per cent) reacted to balsam of Peru and 310 (2.6 per cent) reacted to it without reacting to Fragrance Mix 1, with 68.1 per cent of clinically relevant balsam allergies negative to Fragrance Mix 1; it also records that crude balsam's use \"as such\" has been almost abandoned and that only extracts and distillates are now permitted in cosmetics. Used in this corpus to state what became of the remedy, not to make any historical claim." }, { "id": "bicak-2023-guaiac", "title": "From Praising the Remedy to Eulogising the Patient: Cristobal de Castillejo's Satire of Guaiac in Early Modern Spain", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11212348/", "publisher": "Social History of Medicine 37(1):141-159, Oxford University Press", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Ivana Bicak, published 6 October 2023, DOI 10.1093/shm/hkad072, CC BY 4.0, full text read on 2026-08-11 via PubMed Central. Peer-reviewed history of medicine. Supplies guaiac's arrival in Spain by 1508 alongside the spread of the pox; the names lignum sanctum and lignum vitae; the promotional treatises and the trials encouraged through the Casa de la Contratacion; the Fugger monopoly granted in exchange for a large loan to the Spanish crown; more than 21 tons landed at Seville between 1568 and 1608; the cost of a course in late sixteenth-century Florence at 2 to 13 per cent of an unskilled construction worker's annual earnings; the closed-chamber sweating regimen described by Ulrich von Hutten; Cristobal de Castillejo (1490?-1550) and his mock encomium \"En alabanca del palo de las Indias, estando en la cura del\", with the closing lines on bread, raisins and the bed in which the patient roasts; and the collapse of the wood's reputation, Paracelsus declaring it useless and the observation that improvement came from stopping mercury rather than from the wood." }, { "id": "ganger-2015-medicinal-plants", "title": "World Trade in Medicinal Plants from Spanish America, 1717-1815", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4304538/", "publisher": "Medical History 59(1):44-62, Cambridge University Press", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Stefanie Ganger, 2015, DOI 10.1017/mdh.2014.70, full text read on 2026-08-11 via PubMed Central. Peer-reviewed economic and medical history. Cited here for the later trade record only - the tonnages of cinchona, purges and sarsaparilla imported into Spain across 1717-1738 and 1747-1778; the Royal Pharmacy at Madrid and the crown's eighteenth-century system of free medical attention; the 21 tonnes of guaiacum of 1568-1608 falling to negligible volumes and vanishing from Spanish trade records because sufferers were not benefited by its administration; and the author's argument that American remedies rested on the understanding and experience of Andeans, Tupi-Guarani and Araucanians in identifying, collecting and preparing them, while by the eighteenth century indigenous knowledge had become a cultural trope for naturalists, merchants and officials to capitalise on." }, { "id": "bergman-2019-petroleum-case", "title": "Medical Merchandising and Legal Procedure in Late Sixteenth-Century Spain: The Case of Petroleum as Imported Medicine", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7805792/", "publisher": "Social History of Medicine 33(4):1097-1122, Oxford University Press", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Ted L. L. Bergman, 2019, DOI 10.1093/shm/hkz032, CC BY 4.0, full text read on 2026-08-11 via PubMed Central. Peer-reviewed history of medicine working from the surviving Chancilleria papers. Supplies the suit of the Italian merchant Guido Mondones over whether his medicinal petroleum owed the alcabala; the venues, which were the Consejo de la Contaduria Mayor at Madrid for the royal writ and the Sala de los Alcaldes de los Hijosdalgo and the Sala de Oidores at Valladolid, and not the Protomedicato, the Casa de la Contratacion or the Council of the Indies; the earlier sentences of 1582 at Huete, Corral de Almaguer and Alcazar; the 300 ducados \"more or less\" earned in two months at Huete by July 1585; the order to stop selling given by the governor Menen Suarez de Solis on 29 September 1585 on the ground that the oil was fake and false; the appointment of licenciado San Pedro and Doctor Luis Mercado, chair of medicine at Valladolid and protomedico of Castile within seven years; their report of 2 November 1585 that the oil was the petroleum of which the authors make mention and showed no signs of adulteration; the authorities cited in Mondones's Salamanca handbill of 1584 - Andres de Laguna and his 1555 Dioscorides, Brassavola's Examen simplicium, Platearius's Circa instans and Mattioli; law 14 of title XVIII of book nine of the Nueva recopilacion exempting unguents, poultices and oils from the tax; Monardes on New World petroleum for griefes of the Mother and cold Infirmities; and the author's conclusion that adjudication deferred to published authority rather than to empirical testing." }, { "id": "icazbalceta-bibliografia-mexicana-1886", "title": "Bibliografía mexicana del siglo XVI. Primera parte. Catálogo razonado de libros impresos en México de 1539 á 1600, con biografías de autores y otras ilustraciones, precedido de una noticia acerca de la introducción de la imprenta en México", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=cr0TAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA64", "publisher": "Por Joaquín García Icazbalceta, individuo de número de la Academia Mexicana; México, Librería de Andrade y Morales, Sucesores, Portal de Agustinos n.º 3, 1886. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The standard descriptive catalogue of Mexican printing to 1600, made by a collector who owned or had collated many of the books he describes and who transcribes their title pages and colophons letter for letter, including the gothic type, and reproduces some in photolithographic facsimile. It is a secondary source and this corpus tiers it as one: the sixteenth-century sheets are quoted at one remove, and Icazbalceta himself marks where he worked from a description sent to him rather than from a copy in his hands. He is also an argumentative witness who corrects Beristáin, Harrisse and Nicolás Antonio by name, which is useful where the corpus needs a counterpoint but means his judgements are judgements. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-11: PR3, the title page with the Andrade y Morales imprint of 1886; PR18, printed page XVIII of the notice on the introduction of the press, on Juan Pablos's privileges and on which imprints reckon the year from the Nativity, citing \"DIAZ FREILE, Sumario compendioso, 1556\"; PA64 and PA65, entry 25 of 1556, the Sumario compendioso, with the gothic title page, the eight-year privilege of 15 April 1556 traced to tomo 4 of the Mercedes of the Archivo General folio 329 verso, the assay and interest tables with their folio ranges, the passage proposing the name centavos, the turn from Peru to New Spain at folio lxxxv with the arithmetic of the quinto and the peso-ducado-corona conversion for remittances, the algebra problems, and the colophon of Juan Pablos of 29 May 1556; PA157 and PA158, entry 57 of 1570, the Opera medicinalia of Francisco Bravo, with the title inside its portico, the Ocharte imprint, the four books as announced on the title verso, the Mexican dedications and epigrams, the identification of the refuted Sevillian physician as Monardes, the Harrisse dating trap set by the 1549 block, the Lenox copy lacking its colophon leaf and date, and the opening of the colophon; PA162 and PA163, the essay on physicians in early Mexico attached to that entry; PA168, the statement that the honour of the first medical book published in Mexico falls \"hasta ahora\" to Bravo because Pedrarias de Benavides printed his Secretos de Chirurgía in Spain in 1567, and the account of Francisco Hernández's arrival and salary; PA172, Alonso López de Hinojosos, fourteen years physician of the Hospital Real de indios, and the two editions of his Suma y Recopilación de Cirugía of 1578 and 1595; PA173, Agustín Farfán's Tratado breve de Medicina of 1579 and its reprints, and the biography of Juan de Cárdenas drawn from his own book with the computation of 1563 and 1577; PA329, PA330 and PA331, entry 101 of 1591, the Problemas y secretos, with the title page and collation, the summary of the three books, the chapter index printed because only one copy had been seen, the conclusion on the habitability of the Indies, the vapour explanation of earthquakes and the astrological account of gold placers. Read again as page scans on 2026-08-12 for the Oaxacan imprints, pages opened: PA153, the discussion of Pedro de Feria's Zapotec doctrina and its disputed editions, which carries the dating of Cordova's works and the statement that he was sent into the Zapotec country in 1548; PA223, the close of the Molina article and entry 78 of 1578, Cordova's Arte en lengua zapoteca, with its title page, its Balli imprint and its licences; PA224, the rest of the licences, the dedication to the provincial, the colophon of 8 August 1578, the note that the only known copy was Jose F. Ramirez's and wanted folio 81, and the opening of the NOTABLE section on Zapotec omens; PA226, the marriage divination, the eight causes of separation, the citation of Victoria's \"nullum fuisse matrimonium\", and the folio 68 verso comparison of Zapotec variation with Old Castile against Toledo; PA227, the close of that comparison and the biographical notice of Cordova from Coronado's march to Cibola to his deposition at Yanhuitlan and his death at Oaxaca; PA228, entry 79 of 1578, the Zapotec Vocabulario, which Icazbalceta never saw, with his argument against Beristain's 1571 and Ocharte, Burgoa's praise, and the Fernandez slip that gave the book to Pedro de Feria; PA337, the tail of the Farfan entry; PA338, entry 103 of 1593, Reyes's Arte en lengua mixteca, with the Tepuzculula slip pasted over Tamazulapa, the licences, the dedication of 20 January 1593, the incipit naming the dialect, chapter 28 on the place-names, and the Puebla reprint of 1750; PA341, the end of Reyes's prologue on the reach of the Tepuzculula speech and Icazbalceta's failure to find the count of the years, and entry 104 of 1593, Alvarado's Vocabulario, with its collective title and its licences; PA342, the rest of Alvarado's prologue on accent and nasal pronunciation and on who the authors were, the colophon of Tamazulapa of 6 September 1592, and the short life of Alvarado. Two inconsistencies inside the volume are recorded rather than smoothed: the bishop of Antequera's licence for Cordova's Arte is dated 18 June 1578 on PA223 and 8 June 1578 on PA228, and PA338 collates the 1593 Mixtec grammar at 68 folios where Ludewig gives 163 pages, which is the extent of the 1750 Puebla reprint. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-12: PA66, entry 26 of 1556, the Ordinarium of the Augustinian hermits with its colophon \"Mexici. anno. dni. 1556. idibus Iulij\" and the note \"Notas de canto llano, rojo y negro\"; PA97, the colophon of the Manuale of 1560 \"in edibus Iohannis Pauli impressoris\", the licence of archbishop Montufar to Gaspar Denciso, the viceroy's six-year privilege, the tasacion of 16 July 1560 capping the price at three pesos de oro comun, and the description \"con notas de canto llano, cuando el caso lo pide\", with the head of entry 39 of 1560, the Tumulo Imperial printed by Antonio de Espinosa; PA120, the account inside that book of the exequies of Charles V in Mexico City, naming canto llano and canto de organo, the maestro de capilla with six boys at four voices in a setting of his own composition, a responsory of Morales, and the mass sung \"en canto de organo a cinco voces\"; PA148, the entries of 1567 and 1568 for Benito Fernandez's Doctrina Cristiana en lengua Misteca printed by Pedro Ocharte, with its two colophons and the note \"algunas notas de canto llano, rojo y negro\"; PA156, entry 56 of 1568, the Manuale secundum usum Almae Ecclesiae Mexicanae of Ocharte, its correction to the Tridentine decrees, the four-peso price cap and the archbishop's order that all ministers of the sacraments to Indians and Spaniards use it; PA247, entry 92 of 1583, Sahagun's Psalmodia Cristiana \"ordenada en cantares o Psalmos, para que canten los indios en los areitos que hacen en las iglesias\"; PA324, entry 95 of 1584, the Psalterium Antiphonarium Sanctorale of Ocharte in folio mayor on papel marquilla, 300 folios, all in red and black; and PA328, entry 100 of 1589, the Antiphonarium, 0.40 by 0.26 metres, 132 folios, with the printer's Latin address to the clergy. Read again as page scans on 2026-08-16 for the philosophy imprints of 1554, pages opened: PA44, printed page 44, entry 20 of 1554, the Recognitio Summularum, with its full Latin title, the device of the heart in the sea pierced by arrows and its motto \"Sagitaveras tu, Domine, cor meum charitate tua\", the foot-line \"Mexici. Excudebat Joannes Paulus Brissensis, 1554\", the collation in folio with a red-and-black title in roman type at two columns, the woodcut figures at ff. 30, 34 vta., 36, 37, 48 vta. and 49 and the full-page Pons asinorum at f. 57, the printer's notice on the title verso dated \"Mexici, Anno Domini, 1554, pridie Kalendas Maias\", the epistle of Fr. Estéban de Salazar at foja 2, and the first sentences of the author's dedication to his province; PA48, printed page 46 (the pid is offset by the inserted photolithographs), the close of entry 20 — the fe de erratas, the eight unnumbered leaves of the Epithome Summularum serving as index, the closing line \"Ad dei magni gloriam explicitum fuit opus tertio idus Iulii Anno. 1554\", and Icazbalceta's note that the copy described was in his own hands and that one of the two in José F. Ramírez's library was sold with the Dialectica for £71 — and the whole of entry 21 of 1554, the Dialectica Resolutio cum textu Aristotelis, with its title, its \"Mexici. Excudebat Joannes Paulus Brissensis. Anno. 1554\", the collation, the printer's address to the reader dated \"Mexici ex nostra calcographica officina idibus Iulii. Anno. 1554\", the epigram of Fr. Juan de la Peña, the commendatory letter of Francisco Cervantes Salazar as rhetoric professor of the Mexican academy and his praise of the author's \"modestia singular\", the author's dedication to the University \"fundada el año anterior\", the text at fojas 3 to 86, the acrostic naming Frater Stephanus de Salazar, and the absent foja 87; PA81, printed page 81, Icazbalceta's essay on the attempted reform of studies at the University of Mexico, his Spanish translation of the dedicatory paragraph of the Recognitio Summularum, and his own adverse judgement on the three books; and PA401, printed page 401 of the Correcciones, the addition to the Vera Cruz biography from the first Libro de Cátedras y Claustros dated 30 June 1553, together with the corrections to the Cervantes Salazar biography that print the 1558 sale of land, oxen, livestock and enslaved people at Tacuba, including a branded man, for 1,200 gold pesos, and Icazbalceta's remark on the meanness of the professors' salary." }, { "id": "beristain-biblioteca-hispanoamericana-t1", "title": "Biblioteca Hispano-Americana Septentrional, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=zf1Zmuyz58UC&pg=PA271", "publisher": "José Mariano Beristáin de Souza (1816); facsimile edition, Instituto de Estudios y Documentos Históricos A. C., Biblioteca del Claustro, Serie Facsimilar 1, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, 1980. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "The bibliography of writers of New Spain begun by Beristáin on the basis of Eguiara's Bibliotheca Mexicana of 1755 and carried much further; the volume read here is the 1980 UNAM photographic facsimile of the 1816 tomo I, so the pages are the 1816 type. Reliability is set below the tier because Beristáin's entries are short, frequently undated as to their evidence, and are corrected on points of fact by Icazbalceta seventy years later — which is exactly why the corpus registers him: he is the earlier and independent witness, and where the two disagree the disagreement itself is the finding. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-11: PP1, the facsimile cover naming the 1816 original and the 1980 UNAM series; PR1, printed page I, the opening of his Discurso apologético which serves as prologue, on Eguiara's single volume and on his own loss of papers in the Bahama banks; PR3, page III, his reasons for writing in Castilian rather than Latin and for alphabetising by surname; PA212, printed page 112, the entries of other Bravos, none of them the physician; PA271, printed page 171, the entry \"CARDENAS (D. Juan)\" giving the 1570 passage to New Spain, the chair of vísperas of medicine at the University of Mexico, the Ocharte imprint of the Problemas in 1591, the 1609 treatise on chocolate, the promised Secretos del Reyno del Perú, and the remark that Nicolás Antonio omits his employments and residence in Mexico." }, { "id": "ordenanzas-archivo-indias-1790", "title": "Ordenanzas para el Archivo General de Indias", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=kOT2Eezoh2sC&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Madrid, en la Imprenta de la Viuda de Ibarra, 1790. Universidad Complutense de Madrid copy, digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "The founding rulebook of the Archivo General de Indias, ninety-four chapters over sixty-six printed pages, printed as a certified copy of the royal cedula (\"Es copia de la original\") signed at Madrid on 10 January 1790 by the king and countersigned Antonio Porlier. Read as page scans at 1600 pixels wide; the volume is full view and the printed page number equals the PA page id throughout. Pages opened and read - PP5, the title page with the Madrid 1790 imprint of the widow of Ibarra, the royal arms and the stamps of the Biblioteca Universitaria of Madrid and the Facultad de Ciencias Politicas y Economicas; PA1, the opening of the cedula under EL REY, on the papers of the Indies dispersed in many places and the general archive ordered in the Real Casa-Lonja of Seville; PA2, the papers earlier than 1760 already placed there, the reports taken from Simancas, Barcelona and the Via reservada de Indias, and the opening of chapter I; PA3, the salaries of the archivist, four officials, porter and boy, and chapter II on the supernumerary posts; PA25, chapter XXXIII and the residual class Historia for relations, antiquities, usages and customs; PA38, chapter XLVIII on master copies of the oldest papers, especially those touching the royal patronage and patrimony; PA43, chapters LVII and LVIII on which offices may request papers and how a private party applies; PA44, chapter LIX forbidding any other person a copy, a statement of a paper's existence, or sight of the inventories and indices; PA45, chapter LX on the fees, twenty-four reales the pliego and three reales the additional foja, of which the archivist takes a third; PA54 and PA55, chapters LXXV to LXXVII on the study required of the staff, the library and maps in the archivist's room, and loans against a receipt; PA65, chapter XCIV reserving the crown's power to modify; PA66, the subscription, the date and the copy statement. PA26 was requested and not served by the page-image endpoint, so the natural history and literature classes it describes are not cited here." }, { "id": "instruccion-real-gabinete-historia-natural", "title": "Instruccion hecha de orden del Rei N. S. para que los Virreyes, Gobernadores, Corregidores, Alcaldes mayores e Intendentes de Provincias en todos los Dominios de S. M. puedan hacer escoger, preparar y enviar a Madrid todas las producciones curiosas de Naturaleza que se encontraren en las Tierras y Pueblos de sus distritos, a fin de que se coloquen en el Real Gabinete de Historia Natural", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=IqtXAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1", "publisher": "No imprint in the copy read. British Museum copy, shelfmark 7003 b.13, digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Twenty-four printed pages, in three parts for the mineral, vegetable and animal kingdoms, addressed to the district officers of the Spanish dominions. Read as page scans at 1600 pixels wide. The reliability is set below the tier for one bibliographic reason stated in the object itself: the scan carries no title page, no printer, no place and no year - the text begins at printed page 1 with the head-title and the last page ends without a colophon - so nothing here dates the piece, and the object asserts no date. Pages opened and read - PP1, the binding; PA1, the head-title, the footnote declining European nomenclature as unknown to many in America, and the mineral kingdom with the three or four pounds of each earth and the polished stone tablets; PA7, the close of the quadruped section with the Peruvian camelids, the Mexican Tapayaxin and the bats of the Indies, and the opening of PAXAROS with the ostrich of the Pampas de Buenos Aires, the condor, the Alcatraz, the Sopiloto and the cardinals of Nueva España and Buenos Aires; PA13, the shell section and the statement that European shell names would not be understood in the Indies; PA23, the preparation of shells, corals and marine plants, the note on fished versus beach shells and on asking fishermen to keep and locate what their nets bring up, and chapter XII on pressing and drying plants; PA24, chapter XIII on the numbered catalogue and the particulars to be recorded for each animal, the lead tag, the note on changing the spirits at fifteen days, and the closing concession for places with no skilled hand, followed by the British Museum accession stamp 23 JY 55." }, { "id": "bilbao-ordenanzas-1737-madrid-1796", "title": "Ordenanzas de la ilustre Universidad, y Casa de Contratacion de la M. N. y M. L. Villa de Bilbao, insertos sus reales privilegios, aprobadas, y confirmadas por el Rey nuestro señor Don Felipe Quinto (que Dios guarde) año de 1737", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=_-Jwbca15i8C&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Universidad y Casa de Contratacion de Bilbao; reimpresas con superior permiso, Madrid, en la Imprenta de Sancha, año de 1796, a costa de la misma Universidad, y Casa de Contratacion. Full-view digitisation of the Universidad Complutense copy (ownership stamp of Rafael de Ureña, abogado y catedratico, Madrid).", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "The digitised copy is the Madrid 1796 reprint, not the Bilbao 1737 first printing; the title page carries both dates and the reprint imprint, and this corpus states which sheets it read. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-11 - PP5, the title page; PA1, printed page 1, the Confirmacion real of Philip V with the chain of earlier privileges it recites, the real cedula of Queen Juana at Seville of 22 June 1511 inserting the one granted by Ferdinand and Isabella at Medina del Campo on 21 July 1494 at the instance of the prior, consuls and merchants of the city of Burgos; PA11, printed page 11, within chapter one, de la jurisdiccion del Consulado, where the reales privilegios are transcribed at length; PA28, printed page 28, chapter one paragraphs VI and VII on how suits are to be determined and on the exclusion of lawyers' writings; PA187, printed page 187, the close of the chapter on averia gruesa and the opening of chapter twenty-two, de los seguros, sus polizas, y forma de hacerse; PA191, printed page 191, paragraphs VII and VIII of that chapter, the ten per cent of the risk the insured must keep and the special allowance for the Indies trade." }, { "id": "memorias-vireyes-peru-1859-t1", "title": "Memorias de los vireyes que han gobernado el Perú, durante el tiempo del coloniaje español — Tomo primero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=oxwXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Impresas de órden suprema; Lima, Librería Central de Felipe Bailly, editor, 1859. Full-view digitisation of the New York Public Library (Astor Library) copy.", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Tomo primero prints the relaciones de gobierno of Juan de Mendoza y Luna, marqués de Montesclaros; Francisco de Borja y Aragón, príncipe de Esquilache; Baltasar de la Cueva, conde de Castellar; and Melchor de Liñán y Cisneros. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-11 - PR3, the title page; PA1, printed page 1, the opening of Montesclaros's relacion to Esquilache, with the royal order that viceroys advise their successor of the state in which they leave the kingdom and the date of the letter that conveyed it to him; PA39, printed page 39, the section headed Potosí in the same relacion, on the mita, the number of Indians assigned by Francisco de Toledo, the rotation intended, and what the viceroy says actually happened to the men who went." }, { "id": "fuentes-1859-prologo-memorias", "title": "Editor's prologue to the Memorias de los vireyes que han gobernado el Perú, tomo primero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=oxwXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR5", "publisher": "Manuel Atanasio Fuentes, Lima, Librería Central de Felipe Bailly, 1859; signed M. A. Fuentes at printed page VII.", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-11 at PR5, PR6 and PR7, printed pages V to VII. States how the collection came to be printed by the Peruvian republic, what the editor takes the relaciones to be worth, that fires, sackings and disorder in the public archives destroyed copies of some relaciones now obtainable only from Madrid, and that the strict order of dates was interrupted. Fuentes is the government's appointed editor and writes in praise of the ministers who commissioned him; claims bound to him are his testimony, not an independent audit." }, { "id": "cerdan-de-landa-disertacion-1794", "title": "Disertacion preliminar á los apuntamientos históricos de los mas principales hechos y acaecimientos de cada uno de los señores gobernadores, presidentes y vireyes del Perú, con produccion del extracto de sus relaciones de gobierno", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=oxwXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR9", "publisher": "Ambrosio Cerdán de Landa Simón Pontero, oidor of the Real Audiencia of Lima; first published in the Mercurio Peruano of 3 April 1794, reprinted in the front matter of the Memorias de los vireyes, Lima 1859.", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-11 at PR9, the opening page of the dissertation as reprinted in 1859: its heading, the author's offices, its stated purpose of discharging article 16 of the plan de materias published in the Mercurio Peruano, and its opening pages on the relaciones left by earlier governors and on Francisco de Toledo's general ordinances. Cerdán is a serving crown judge writing in a periodical of the Lima reformist society and opens in praise of the monarchy; the corpus binds to him only what he states about the documents." }, { "id": "cortes-ordenanzas-alaman-apendice-1844", "title": "Ordenanzas inéditas del año de 1524; Ordenanzas inéditas ó arancel para los venteros; Ordenanzas hechas en el año de 1525 — the documents printed in the Apéndice segundo of Lucas Alamán, Disertaciones sobre la historia de la republica Megicana, tomo primero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=LdtkAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "José Mariano Lara, Mexico, 1844", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "First printing of three governing documents of the first years of New Spain, taken by their editor from a private family archive. The head of each says so: the 1524 ordinances are \"Sacadas del archivo del Exmo. Sr. Duque de Terranova y Monteleone, en el hospital de Jesus.—Partida 4a del legajo núm. 19 del 2o inventario\", and the arancel and the 1525 ordinances come from the same archive and the same legajo. What is read here is therefore an 1844 transcription of manuscripts held privately, not the manuscripts, and the transcription is demonstrably imperfect in at least one place: the 1525 set breaks off with the editor's bracketed note \"[Parece que falta la conclusion.]\", so it carries no date, place or subscription. The arancel carries none either. Reliability is set at 0.8 for that reason rather than for any doubt about the documents themselves; the 1524 set is complete and subscribed. The copy served no title page, so the imprint is the volume record's. Pages opened and read at &w=1600 — RA2-PA105, the heading, provenance and preamble of the 1524 ordinances and the first arms clause; RA2-PA106 and RA2-PA107, the graduated militia obligations by size of repartimiento; RA2-PA109, the grafting of Castilian vines, the sowing of wheat and barley in the Indian towns, and the religious clause with its statement of the papal grant; RA2-PA110, the church in each Indian town and the clause bringing the sons of native lords to the friars; RA2-PA111, the salaried teacher where no monastery exists and the clérigo required of holders of more than two thousand Indians; RA2-PA112, the recital of past extortion and the prohibition on pressing Indians for gold or striking them; RA2-PA116, the reference of grievances to fray Juan de Tecto and the treasurer Alonso de Estrada, the order of proclamation by crier, and the subscription of 20 March 1524; RA2-PA117 and RA2-PA118, the arancel for innkeepers entire, with its penalty clause and the order to post it at every inn door; RA2-PA119, the promulgation of the arancel by Manuel Calvo, escribano público, and the heading and preamble of the 1525 ordinances; RA2-PA120 to RA2-PA122, the municipal constitution of the two Honduras villas, the fiel of weights and measures, the refuse grounds and the thirty-day bar on resale; RA2-PA128, the cattle brands, the bar on holding a cabildo without the governor's lieutenant present, and the editor's note that the conclusion is missing. Pages RA2-PA108 and RA2-PA113 to RA2-PA115 were not opened and nothing is claimed from them." }, { "id": "alaman-disertaciones-1844-t1-tercera", "title": "Lucas Alamán, Disertaciones sobre la historia de la republica Megicana, tomo primero — prólogo, advertencia and the Tercera Disertación", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=LdtkAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "José Mariano Lara, Mexico, 1844", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "The editor's own prose, kept apart from the documents he prints. It is a nineteenth-century Mexican conservative's account of the government that preceded independence, written to argue that it deserved study before it was altered, and it declares its own apparatus missing: the advertencia states that everything asserted rests on respectable authorities but that citing them seemed unnecessary except in a few things. That is a real deduction from reliability and the reason it is set at 0.75 and the tier at secondary, below the documents in the same volume. The prólogo records that the work began as public lectures proposed to the Ateneo Mexicano. Pages opened and read — PR1, the prólogo; PR3, printed page III, the advertencia and the statement about citations; PA182, the Tercera Disertación on the prices in the arancel, on its publication in the name of Cortés together with the justicias and regidores of Temixtitan, and on the 1525 ordinances as the base of the economic administration of the towns founded afterwards." }, { "id": "colliget-theizir-venetiis-1542", "title": "Colliget Auerrois, totam medicinam ingentibus voluminibus ab alijs traditam mira quadam breuitate et ordine sic ad amusim complectens... Theizir Abynzoar, morbos omnes, tam vniuersales quam particulares, et eorundem remedia continens", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=TuBQAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Venetiis, apud Octauianum Scotum, D. Amadei F., 1542. Bayerische Staatsbibliothek copy, shelfmark 2 Med.gen. 11, digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "The Latin Colliget of Averroes and the Latin Theizir of Avenzoar printed as one folio volume, with Marcantonio Zimara's dubia et solutiones on the Colliget appended. Read from the page scans on 2026-08-11 at 1600px width. Pages opened - PP2, the front flyleaf, carrying the Munich shelfmark and a later librarian's German note that in this volume the Theizir stands first and the Colliget only from leaf 45; PA1, the title page, giving both titles, the Zimara corollary, and the imprint VENETIIS, Apud Octauianum Scotum, D. Amadei F., 1542; PA2, leaf 2 recto, headed PROHEMIVM, the incipit of the Theizir and Avenzoar's own preface, with a historiated initial showing a turbaned physician and a printed index of indications running down the outer margin; PA45, leaf 45 recto, headed PROLOGVS, the incipit of the Colliget, Averroes's account of the commission he received, his naming of the book, his division of it into seven partial books, and the summaries of the first five of them. The volume is a witness to the Latin transmission and to this printing, not to the Arabic text - both works reach this page through a medieval Latin translator and a Renaissance editor, and the reliability is set below 1.0 for that reason rather than for any defect in the scan." }, { "id": "tbakhi-amr-2008-ibn-rushd", "title": "Ibn Rushd (Averroes): Prince of Science", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6074522/", "publisher": "Abdelghani Tbakhi and Samir S. Amr, Annals of Saudi Medicine 28(2):145-147, 2008; DOI 10.5144/0256-4947.2008.145; PMCID PMC6074522", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Full text read 2026-08-11. A short appreciative notice in a clinical journal's history-of-medicine series, not critical historiography, and the reliability reflects that. Used here for dates and for the sequence of offices - birth at Cordoba 1126 and death at Marrakech 10 December 1198, a family of jurists, judge at Seville in 1169 and at Cordoba from 1171, physician to the Caliph at Marrakesh from 1182 - and for the Kitab al-Kulliyat fi al-Tibb, written between 1153 and 1169 in seven subdivisions, translated into Hebrew and Latin ninety years later and taught in Europe until the eighteenth century. The same notice records the accusation of heresy, the interrogation, the banishment to Lucena and the order to burn his books with medicine, arithmetic and astronomy spared, and states that Ibn Rushd asked Ibn Zuhr to compose al-Taisir so that the two works would form one comprehensive textbook." }, { "id": "amr-tbakhi-2007-al-zahrawi", "title": "Abu Al Qasim Al Zahrawi (Albucasis): Pioneer of Modern Surgery", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6077085/", "publisher": "Samir S. Amr and Abdelghani Tbakhi, Annals of Saudi Medicine 27(3):220-221, 2007; DOI 10.5144/0256-4947.2007.220; PMCID PMC6077085", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Full text read 2026-08-11. The companion notice to the Ibn Rushd piece in the same series, and celebratory in the same way; the reliability is set at 0.7 because it asserts a long list of surgical firsts without stating which of them are contested. Used for birth at al-Zahra six miles northwest of Cordoba in 936 and death in 1013 at the age of 77, service as court physician to al-Hakam II, the thirty volumes of al-Tasrif described as a summation of about fifty years of practice, the subject list, the ligature and catgut attribution against Pare, the instrument count, Guy de Chauliac's two hundred citations, and the Venice 1497, Basel 1541 and Oxford 1778 printings." }, { "id": "chavoushi-2012-al-tasrif-gynecomastia", "title": "Surgery for Gynecomastia in the Islamic Golden Age: Al-Tasrif of Al-Zahrawi (936-1013 AD)", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3459224/", "publisher": "Seyed Hadi Chavoushi, Kamyar Ghabili, Abdolhassan Kazemi and others, ISRN Surgery 2012:934965; DOI 10.5402/2012/934965; PMCID PMC3459224", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Full text read 2026-08-11. Higher reliability than the two notices above because it quotes the operative text at length rather than summarising achievements. Used for the full Arabic title and its rendering, for the three surgical books of al-Tasrif on cauterisation, on incision and wounds and on bone-setting, for the roughly two hundred instrument illustrations, for the Gerard of Cremona translation, for the claim that al-Tasrif displaced Avicenna's Canon in many European universities between the twelfth and seventeenth centuries, and for the quoted gynaecomastia operation. The article also names al-Zahrawi, Ibn Zuhr and Ibn Rushd together as the most influential physicians of the western lands." }, { "id": "al-jaberi-2026-al-tasrif-oncology", "title": "From Al-Zahrawi's Kitab Al-Tasrif to modern oncology: enduring principles of surgical cancer management", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13236124/", "publisher": "Tareq M. R. Al-Jaberi, Annals of Medicine and Surgery (London), 2026; DOI 10.1097/MS9.0000000000004988; PMCID PMC13236124", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Full text read 2026-08-11. A surgeon reading a medieval text for present-day principles, which is a use rather than a history, and the reliability reflects that. Valuable for stating its own textual basis, which the two Annals notices do not - the author works from the 1541 printing entitled Methodus medendi certa, clara, et brevis and from Spink and Lewis, Albucasis on Surgery and Instruments. Used for the thirty-volume description, the Gerard of Cremona rendering of the surgical section as Liber Chirurgiae, and the statement that it served as the reference for surgical education at Salerno, Montpellier and Bologna for over five centuries." }, { "id": "lozano-de-curandis-2020", "title": "De curandis hominum morbis: una receta médica del siglo XVIII para el sarampión y las viruelas en el Nuevo Reino de Granada", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7666863/", "publisher": "Lozano A, Martínez JC, Uribe J, Gómez A, Figueredo SA, Briceño I. Biomédica 40(3):427-437, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Bogotá, 2020. doi:10.7705/biomedica.4995. Open access, read in full at PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-11 by reading the full text at PMC7666863. Peer-reviewed edition and commentary on an anonymous Spanish-language manuscript prescription for smallpox and measles held as Fondo Manuel María Mosquera, caja 10, carpeta 2, folios 111v-113r and 116r-120v, Archivo Histórico Cipriano Rodríguez Santa María, Universidad de La Sabana, Chía. Supplies the Spanish quotations used here (the water passage, the bleeding quantities, the 1753 case history) together with the editors' own caveats: the owner and the physician-author are unidentified, the dating is not documentarily confirmed, and they decline to vouch for the clinical value of the prescription. The manuscript itself is digitised at intellectum.unisabana.edu.co, which this container's egress policy blocks; the folios are therefore cited through this edition and not opened directly, which is why the tier here is secondary and not primary." }, { "id": "amaya-castellanos-sarampion-colombia-2025", "title": "Historia de las epidemias de sarampión en Colombia: un conteo incompleto (History of the measles epidemics in Colombia: an incomplete count)", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12542895/", "publisher": "Amaya-Castellanos C, Ortega F, Idrovo ÁJ. Biomédica 45(4):485-502, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Bogotá, 2025. doi:10.7705/biomedica.7650. Open access, read in full at PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-11. Chronology of measles epidemics in the territory of present-day Colombia from the sixteenth century. Used here only for the colonial backdrop — Tunja 1559, Bogotá 1618-1621 with mortality among tributary Indians, the eighteenth-century outbreaks — and for the paper's own declared limitation, that colonial epidemics are under-recorded and the reconstruction rests largely on secondary historical literature rather than primary archival series. That self-declared limit is the reason the claim bound to it carries a low confidence." }, { "id": "mcbride-california-missions-2020", "title": "Exchange of medicinal plant information in California missions", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7296748/", "publisher": "McBride JR, Cavero RY, Cheshire AL, Calvo MI, McBride DL. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 16:35, BMC/Springer Nature, 2020. doi:10.1186/s13002-020-00388-y. Open access, read in full at PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Verified 2026-08-11 by reading the full text at PMC7296748. Compiles medicinal-plant lists from published ethnobotanical studies, mission records, diaries and modern scholarship to test whether knowledge passed between Native Californians and the Franciscans. Supplies the counts used here (265 pre-Mission taxa, 16 documented at the missions, 12 taxa shared with the Mexican materia medica), the 1812 mission survey and its question on native medicinal practice with 13 of 18 missions replying that plants were used, the authors' list of impediments to exchange including corporal punishment and the priests' view of native practice, and the finding that sharing increased only after 1821. The article does not establish which authority issued the 1812 questionnaire, so this object does not name one." }, { "id": "derrotero-antillas-madrid-1837", "title": "Derrotero de las islas Antillas, de las costas de Tierra-Firme, y de las del seno mejicano, formado en la Direccion de Hidrografia para inteligencia y uso de las cartas que ha publicado. Tercera edicion", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=xDkvAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Direccion de Hidrografia; Madrid, en la Imprenta Nacional, 1837. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "The 1837 sheets of the third edition, read as page scans on 2026-08-11. Reliability sits below the tier for two reasons the volume supplies itself. First, it is by its own account a compilation of elements of unequal value - the editions of 1810 and 1820, notices from individual navigators, the archives of the academies of pilots, printed and manuscript derroteros in naval use, and foreign works - so a statement in it may rest on a survey or on a passing report, and the text does not always distinguish which. Second, the office is an interested party: it publishes the derrotero as the companion to the charts it sells, so its account of the quality of those charts is not disinterested. Against that, the same front matter grades its own evidence downward and names its foreign sources, which is why the tier is not reduced further. Pages opened and read - PP7, the title page with the Madrid 1837 Imprenta Nacional imprint, the statement of third edition, and the announced appendix on Atlantic currents and memoir of rocks, shoals and reported dangers; PP9, the opening of the Advertencia, on the two previous editions of 1810 and 1820, the academies of pilots and naval archives, the unequal confidence of the elements used, the disagreement of notices for one and the same place, the statement that the work is far from perfection, and the superior order obliging Spanish pilots to report errors and observations to the Direccion Hidrografica for their own safety and the public benefit; PP10, the close of the Advertencia, crediting the descriptions and reconnaissances of brigadiers Cosme Churruca and Joaquin Francisco Fidalgo in the Antilles and on the coasts of Tierra Firme, the recent surveys of northern Cuba ordered by General Angel Laborde and carried out by lieutenants Manuel Moreno and Victoriano Diaz Herrera from Nuevitas del Principe to cabo de San Antonio, and the foreign works kept in view - Purdy's memoir of the northern Atlantic printed at London in 1829, Blunt's derrotero of northern America published at New York in 1833, and the Nautical Magazine - followed by the two notes fixing bearings as true or corrected for variation and longitudes on the meridian of the old observatory of Cadiz, with the offsets to San Fernando, Paris and Greenwich." }, { "id": "alva-ixtlilxochitl-obras-historicas-1891-1892", "title": "Obras historicas de don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl - the author's own text, tomo I (Relaciones) and tomo II (Historia Chichimeca)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=2vkWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Publicadas y anotadas por Alfredo Chavero; Mexico, Oficina Tip. de la Secretaria de Fomento, tomo I 1891 and tomo II 1892. Full-view digitisation of the Peabody Museum copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Registered for the seventeenth-century author's own text as printed in this edition; the editor's introduction and notes in the same volume are a separate source, chavero-obras-historicas-notas-1891, and the two are never allowed to borrow each other's tier. Reliability is low for a primary because the transmission is long and the editors of the corpus disagree about it: the text descends through manuscript copies whose catalogues, as the same edition records, do not agree with one another, and the printing was made under a presidential agreement for a centenary commemoration rather than as a critical recension. The Google volume binds both tomos, tomo II beginning at the pid prefix RA1. Pages opened and read - PA1, the tomo I title page, Mexico 1891, with the statement that the edition is made by agreement of President General Porfirio Diaz to be presented as Mexico's homage to Columbus at the fourth centenary; PA15, printed page 15 of the Relaciones, the author's statement that what survives is mere ciphers beside the histories the first archbishop of Mexico ordered burned, with the editor's dissenting footnote beneath it, and the opening of Las naciones pobladoras; RA1-PA1, the tomo II title page, Historia Chichimeca, Mexico 1892, same publisher and same centenary statement." }, { "id": "chavero-obras-historicas-notas-1891", "title": "Alfredo Chavero, introduction and annotations to the Obras historicas de don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=2vkWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA6", "publisher": "Mexico, Oficina Tip. de la Secretaria de Fomento, 1891-1892. Full-view digitisation of the Peabody Museum copy, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Nineteenth-century Mexican scholarship, read as page scans on 2026-08-11, and the source for everything biographical and bibliographical in the object on Alva Ixtlilxochitl. It is competent and it is committed: Chavero edits under a presidential commission for a national commemoration, and he argues openly against his own author over the burning of the picture-histories, which makes him a good witness to the state of the question and a partisan in it. He is also inconsistent between volumes on that point, and the object records the inconsistency rather than choosing a side. Pages opened and read - PA6, the descent from the lords of Texcoco through dona Beatriz Papantzin daughter of Cuitlahuac, birth about 1568, the Colegio de Santa Cruz at Tlatelolco, the post of interpreter of the Juzgado de indios in his last years, death about 1648 at eighty, the account of how he began writing from ancient paintings and later wrote in pursuit of the restitution of his lordship, the disagreeing catalogues of Boturini, Beristain and Clavijero and Fernando Ramirez's collation of them against the manuscripts of the Archivo and the Museo and the Kingsborough collection, and the identification of the first two works; PA15 footnote 1, the defence of Zumarraga after Garcia Icazbalceta, with Sahagun on the burning of paintings ordered under Itzcoatl and the burning of the teocalli of conquered towns; RA1-PA7, printed page 7 of tomo II, the presentation of the paintings, songs and papers to the cabildo of Otumba, the regret that the paintings are neither preserved nor enumerated, Pomar's Relacion de Texcuco of 1582 on the burning of the archive in the royal houses of Nezahualpilzintli at Cortes's first entry, Ixtlilxochitl's attribution of it to the Tlaxcaltecs, Pomar on the later burning of hieroglyphs for fear of Zumarraga during the idolatry case against don Carlos Ometochtzin, and the editor's admission that the first consequence of the quotation runs contrary to Zumarraga." }, { "id": "betanzos-suma-y-narracion-madrid-1880", "title": "Suma y narracion de los Incas, que los indios llamaron capaccuna, que fueron senores de la ciudad del Cuzco y de todo lo a ella subjeto, escrita por Juan de Betanzos - the 1551 text as printed in 1880", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=nCjCRf0XeAcC&pg=PP1", "publisher": "Biblioteca Hispano-Ultramarina; publicala Marcos Jimenez de la Espada; Madrid, Imprenta de Manuel G. Hernandez, Libertad 16 duplicado, 1880. Full-view digitisation of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Registered for Betanzos's own text of 1551; the editor's preface and notes in the same volume are a separate source, jimenez-de-la-espada-preface-betanzos-1880. Reliability is set below the tier for three reasons stated in the volume itself: what is printed is a fragment of eighteen chapters and their beginnings, the last incomplete; it descends from a single copy in the Escorial rather than from the author's hand; and the edition normalises the spelling of at least one Andean name away from its exemplar by the editor's own footnote. Betanzos is besides an interested witness, married into Atahuallpa's kin and writing at a viceroy's order. Pages opened and read - PP1, the title page with the Madrid 1880 imprint of Manuel G. Hernandez and the Biblioteca Hispano-Ultramarina series line; PP19, the dedication to viceroy Antonio de Mendoza, the six years spent on the Doctrina chripstiana and the two vocabularios, the variety found in informing himself, and the statement that the conquistadors speak very far from what the Indians used because they were employed in subjecting the land rather than in knowing it; PA1, printed page 1, chapter one on Con Tici Viracocha as Maker and the opening of the Andean account in reported speech; PA140, the last printed page, the table of Inca months against the Christian calendar." }, { "id": "jimenez-de-la-espada-preface-betanzos-1880", "title": "Marcos Jimenez de la Espada, editorial preface and notes to the Suma y narracion de los Incas", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=nCjCRf0XeAcC&pg=PP4", "publisher": "Madrid, Imprenta de Manuel G. Hernandez, 1880. Full-view digitisation of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek copy, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Nineteenth-century Spanish Americanist scholarship, read as page scans on 2026-08-11. Reliable on what the editor did and saw - he handled the Escorial codex himself and dates the encounter - and openly advocatory on the value of the text he is publishing, since the preface exists to justify printing a fragment rather than waiting for the rest. The claim bound to his literary judgement about Andean voice carries a confidence of 0.75 for that reason. Pages opened and read - PP3, the notice of the work by fray Gregorio Garcia about 1607 in the proem and chapter VII of the last book of Origen de los indios, Garcia's statement that he had it and that it helped him, the silence after Garcia's death at Baeza, and the two or three undistinguished citations by Prescott; PP4, the Escorial codex L j 5 that also holds anonymously the second part of Cieza's chronicle, the state of the copy as found in the summer of 1875 in a thick volume bound long before and with all its folios, its contents as the beginnings and first eighteen chapters with the last incomplete, and the statement that this fragment is all that was then known of the work; PP5, the argument for publishing the fragment at once, its value for the study of Peruvian antiquities, the data gathered from the first years of the conquest to 1551, and the judgement that in this history things happen in the Indian manner and not in the Spanish manner as in Cieza and Garcilaso; PP7, the settlement at Cuzco, the marriage after Francisco Pizarro's death to Anas, at baptism dona Angelina, nusta and sister of Atahuallpa and mother of Pizarro's third son, the appointment in 1558 by the marquis of Canete as interpreter and negotiator with fray Bautista Garcia in the reduction of Sayri Tupac, the later part in the first negotiations with Titu Cusi Yupanqui under governor Lope Garcia de Castro, and the statement that the deaths of Betanzos and of viceroy Mendoza, who ordered the Suma y narracion written and finished in 1551, prevented the book from being published." }, { "id": "delsol-2022-puerto-real-horse-mitogenome", "title": "Analysis of the earliest complete mtDNA genome of a Caribbean colonial horse (Equus caballus) from 16th-century Haiti", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9328532/", "publisher": "Delsol N, Stucky BJ, Oswald JA, Reitz EJ, Emery KF, Guralnick R. PLoS ONE 17(7):e0270600, 2022. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0270600. PMCID PMC9328532", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Peer-reviewed archaeogenomics, full text read on 2026-08-11 through the PMC copy (journals.plos.org is refused at CONNECT from this container). Supplies the 1493 royal ordinance to Fernando de Zafra, the 28 November 1493 landing of horses at La Isabela, the growth of the Hispaniola herds and the governor's decree that no more need be imported, the 1520s arrival on the Mesoamerican mainland and 1538 on the Gulf coast of Florida, Cortes's sixteen horses of 1519 and Bernal Diaz's description of each animal, the feral herds widespread from Mexico to the Great Plains by the 1650s, and the Puerto Real tooth from the level deposited at the 1578 abandonment assigned to haplogroup A with its Iberian reading. The authors state their own limit - one maternal lineage from one animal - and it is carried into the claim confidences here rather than smoothed over." }, { "id": "taylor-2025-jamestown-equids", "title": "Early transatlantic movement of horses and donkeys at Jamestown", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12407088/", "publisher": "Taylor WTT et al. Science Advances 11(36):eadw2595, 2025. doi:10.1126/sciadv.adw2595. PMCID PMC12407088", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Peer-reviewed archaeogenomics on the 1607-1610 Jamestown equids, full text read on 2026-08-11. Registered here as the counterweight to an Iberian-origin story: it states that the first horses reached western and southeastern North America through Spanish activity while many of the first equids on the eastern seaboard came with English settlers, and it models the Jamestown donkey as European with West African ancestry, best fitted from Mauritania, with no contribution from mainland Spain. Read for that boundary, not for Spanish material." }, { "id": "andablo-reyes-2023-agrisilvicultures-arid-mexico", "title": "Agri-silvicultures of Mexican Arid America", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10503103/", "publisher": "Andablo-Reyes ADC, Moreno-Calles AI, Cancio-Coyac BA, Gutierrez-Coatecatl E, Rivero-Romero AD, Hernandez-Cendejas G, Casas A. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 19:39, 2023. doi:10.1186/s13002-023-00612-5. PMCID PMC10503103", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Peer-reviewed ethnobiological review of the agroforestry systems of arid northern Mexico, full text with tables read on 2026-08-11. Supplies the oasis systems as relics of management imported by the Jesuits from arid zones of Asia and Europe, the forty-two species of the Baja California Sur ranchero oases including missionary olive and missionary grape, the one hundred and thirty-nine species of the Tohono O'odham plots at Quitovac in Sonora, the dates 1546, 1699 and the expulsion of 1767, and the totals of about 900 plants, 200 animals and ten fungi across the systems reviewed. It is also the source of the costs recorded here in its own words - the extermination of most of the Arid American peoples, the reduction of indigenous territory after secularisation, and the 1908 deportation and sale of Yaquis to the henequen fields of Yucatan. A review rather than a field study of any one site, which is why the species counts are carried at 0.75 and 0.8 rather than higher." }, { "id": "falcon-brindis-2020-baja-oases", "title": "Islands in the desert for cavity-nesting bees and wasps: Ecology, patterns of diversity, and conservation at oases of Baja California Peninsula", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6972840/", "publisher": "Falcon-Brindis A, Jimenez Jimenez ML, Rodriguez-Estrella R. Ecology and Evolution 10(1):527-542, 2020. doi:10.1002/ece3.5927. PMCID PMC6972840; PMID 31993124", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Field entomology at six peninsular oases, full text read on 2026-08-11. Registered for two things only, both within its evidence - that the oases are relictual mesic habitats left by desertification since the late Pleistocene rather than works of the missions, and that they hold a distinct fauna, with about 65 per cent of nests and 50 per cent of species found in the oasis and nowhere else in the surrounding desert, now threatened by land-use change and invasive plants. It says nothing about Jesuits, date palms, Loreto or 1697, and is not cited for any of those." }, { "id": "endfield-2012-colonial-mexico-resilience", "title": "The resilience and adaptive capacity of social-environmental systems in colonial Mexico", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3309716/", "publisher": "Endfield GH. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109(10):3676-3681, 2012. doi:10.1073/pnas.1114831109. PMCID PMC3309716", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Peer-reviewed environmental history built on the Archivo General de la Nacion and the municipal archives of Oaxaca, Leon and Chihuahua, full text read on 2026-08-11. Supplies the tanda system of water turns and its water judges, the 1614 Acambaro mill-and-irrigation settlement on the Lerma, the 1780 Lake Yuriria works financed by 5,000 pesos raised among the landowners of the Valle de Santiago, the posito and Real alhondiga granaries, the Xoxocotlan suit over the shifting channel of the Atoyac between 1775 and 1804, and the 1785-86 famine. It also supplies its own counterweights - Spaniards charged money and indigenous residents charged labour at Celaya in 1692, Augustinian domination of the Yuriria water, a dam the council failed to maintain, and the growing inequality of the late colonial period - which is why the object built on it can state cost and achievement from one authority." }, { "id": "butzer-2012-collapse-environment-society", "title": "Collapse, environment, and society", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3309741/", "publisher": "Butzer KW. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109(10):3632-3639, 2012. doi:10.1073/pnas.1114845109. PMCID PMC3309741", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Overview article opening the same PNAS special feature, full text read on 2026-08-11. Cited here for one thing and no more - that it counts colonial Mexico among four cases in which resilience allowed fundamental change without simplification or breakdown, and that it attributes resilience to identified options, understanding, cultural solidarity, leadership and opportunities for participation. It is a listing rather than a study of Mexico, and the claim citing it says so." }, { "id": "vanandel-2022-sixteenth-century-tomatoes", "title": "Sixteenth-century tomatoes in Europe: who saw them, what they looked like, and where they came from", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8772448/", "publisher": "van Andel T, Vos RA, Michels E, Stefanaki A. PeerJ 10:e12790, 2022. doi:10.7717/peerj.12790. PMCID PMC8772448", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Peer-reviewed botanical-historical study of every surviving sixteenth-century tomato specimen, full text read on 2026-08-11 through the PMC copy. Supplies Sahagun's report that the Aztecs cultivated a great variety of tomatoes after the fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521 and the Spanish adoption of the Nahuatl tomatl; Matthioli's first description of 1544 and Dodoens's first published image of 1553 with the coloured version of 1554; the ten surviving specimens and thirteen illustrations and where they are held; the contemporary names poma del Peru, mala aurea, pomum amoris and Guilandinus's Tumatle Americanorum referred to Themistithan; and the molecular placement of the En Tibi leaf of about 1558 with Mesoamerican material. Registered here above all for what it states it cannot show - that Seville was the principal point of entry for New World products but that no record exists of the tomato's introduction there or of its cultivation in the royal Iberian gardens - which is the sentence that keeps the Spanish leg of this object honest." }, { "id": "razifard-2020-tomato-domestication-latin-america", "title": "Genomic Evidence for Complex Domestication History of the Cultivated Tomato in Latin America", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7086179/", "publisher": "Razifard H, Ramos A, Della Valle AL, Bodary C, Goetz E, Manser EJ, Li X, Zhang L, Visa S, Tieman D, van der Knaap E, Caicedo AL. Molecular Biology and Evolution 37(4):1118-1132, 2020. doi:10.1093/molbev/msz297. PMCID PMC7086179", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Population-genomic study of tomato domestication, full text read on 2026-08-11. Supplies the 295 accessions and roughly 23.8 million SNPs, the divergence of the semi-domesticated intermediate from the wild species at about 78,000 years ago in Ecuador, the northern intermediate populations at about 13,000 years and the fully domesticated tomato at about 7,000 years most likely in Mexico, and the N-shaped reversal in which domestication traits were lost northward and reselected. Cited only for the American history of the plant, never for its passage to Europe, and the authors' own statement that archaeological evidence of ancestral phenotypes is insufficient is carried into the claim confidences." }, { "id": "santana-2025-gran-canaria-maize-isotopes", "title": "Food Globalization in the Early Modern Period: Isotopic Evidence of Maize Introduction and Dietary Diversification on Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain (16th-18th CE)", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12118451/", "publisher": "Santana J et al. American Journal of Biological Anthropology 186(3):e70027, 2025. doi:10.1002/ajpa.70027. PMCID PMC12118451", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Stable-isotope study of 66 human and 42 animal samples from Gran Canaria of the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries against 53 individuals of the indigenous period, full text read on 2026-08-11. Supplies the collagen carbon means of -19.4, -17.8, -17.3 and -13.8 per mil and the childhood C4 proportions of 41, 43 and 64 per cent; the granary figures of 42,554 bushels of maize in 1789 and 98,708 against 57,527 of wheat in 1813; the Castilian introduction of cattle, horses, donkeys and the animal-driven plough; the eighteenth-century manuring signal; the Finca Clavijo burials of North African and sub-Saharan people enslaved in the sugar mills from the late fifteenth century with their 15.6 per cent caries rate; and the more varied diet at the Convento de San Francisco. The authors' framing of the change as food globalisation driven by transatlantic networks is recorded as their reading and carried at 0.75." }, { "id": "serrano-2023-canary-islands-genomic-history", "title": "The genomic history of the indigenous people of the Canary Islands", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10427657/", "publisher": "Serrano JG et al. Nature Communications 14:4641, 2023. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-40198-w. PMCID PMC10427657", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Ancient-genome study of the indigenous Canarians, full text read on 2026-08-11. Supplies the 40 newly generated genomes with nine previously published from sites on all seven islands dated between the third and sixteenth centuries, the North African Berber ancestry with Late Neolithic Moroccan as the largest component and the predominance of the E-M183 Y-chromosome lineage, the settlement of the archipelago between about the second and fifth centuries, the effective population sizes of about 411 archipelago-wide ranging from 460 on Gran Canaria to 75 on Fuerteventura, the pre-contact bottleneck on El Hierro between the seventh and twelfth centuries, and the modelled present-day admixture of 79.7 per cent Spanish, 17.8 per cent indigenous and 2.6 per cent sub-Saharan African. The paper gives little narrative detail on the conquest itself beyond dating its start to 1402, and is not cited here for mortality, enslavement or forced relocation." }, { "id": "guzman-solis-2021-colonial-mexico-viral-genomes", "title": "Ancient viral genomes reveal introduction of human pathogenic viruses into Mexico during the transatlantic slave trade", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8423449/", "publisher": "Guzman-Solis AA, Villa-Islas V, Bravo-Lopez MJ, Sandoval-Velasco M, Wesp JK, Gomez-Valdes JA, et al. eLife 10:e68612, 2021. doi:10.7554/eLife.68612. PMCID PMC8423449", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Palaeogenomic study of colonial Mexico City, full text read on 2026-08-11. Supplies the description of the Hospital Real de San Jose de los Naturales as the first hospital in Mexico dedicated specifically to treating the indigenous population, the over 600 individuals from mass burials at the hospital and the haste of their deposition, the 1576 cocoliztli autopsy descriptions, the 21 hospital teeth and five from the chapel of La Concepcion in Coyoacan, the three African-born individuals with haplogroup L and enamel strontium of 0.71098-0.71109 against bone values of 0.70672-0.70755 and radiocarbon ranges of 1442-1608 and 1472-1625, the three parvovirus B19 genotype 3 genomes and the hepatitis B sub-genotype A4 genome with their coverages, the indigenous individual COYC4 carrying an African B19 strain, and the authors' statement attributing these introductions to the conditions of the Middle Passage rather than to African peoples. The article gives no foundation date for the hospital and none is claimed from it." }, { "id": "tiesler-2022-campeche-colonial-ancient-dna", "title": "Life and death in early colonial Campeche: new insights from ancient DNA", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11617036/", "publisher": "Tiesler V et al. Antiquity 96(388):1014-1030, 2022. doi:10.15184/aqy.2022.79. PMCID PMC11617036", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Bioarchaeological and ancient-DNA study of the early colonial churchyard of San Francisco de Campeche, full text read on 2026-08-11. Supplies the foundation of the town by Francisco de Montejo the younger by the end of 1540 over the Maya site of Ah Kin Pech, the 129 interments excavated in 2000 and the roughly 140 years of use until the cathedral replaced the churchyard in 1680, the listed constituencies the church served, the ten genomes with eight of purely Maya ancestry and haplogroups A2 or B2, the West African woman of haplogroup L3 with a C3 childhood diet and a high strontium value, the European man of probable southwestern Spanish origin on lead isotopes, the absence of admixture among the ten, the venereal treponematosis in burial 78, the earlier isotopic identification of about a dozen West Africans in the series and their deaths in the early twenties, and the authors' observation that the voices of Natives, Africans, children and women are underrepresented in the written record." }, { "id": "shakespeare-report-cholera-1890", "title": "Edward O. Shakespeare, Report on Cholera in Europe and India", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=i_qAQunf0oUC&pg=PA712", "publisher": "Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1890. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Official report of the medical commissioner sent by the United States to study cholera in Europe and India, 1044 pages. Read as page scans at 1600 pixels wide on 2026-08-11; the volume is full view, the printed page number equals the PA page id, and SearchWithinVolume on \"Ferran\" returned ten hits with empty snippets but usable page ids. Pages opened and read - PA712, the author's statement of his own adverse prejudice, the advice given him in London and Berlin that investigating Ferran was beneath serious scientific consideration, and the interview at Valencia with Dr Jelley, the British journals' correspondent on the question; PA713, the visit to Ferran's house and laboratory at Tortosa, the dusty single room without water-closet, the two microscopes, the cultures of the comma bacillus of Koch and of the Finkler and Prior bacillus, and the charge of enormous fees; PA714, the close of the personal assessment and the section head THE HUMAN ANTI-CHOLERAIC INOCULATIONS IN SPAIN, with the villages of the province of Valencia, the figure of more than 30,000 inoculated, and the report of the French Commission under Brouardel presented after its return from Spain in the summer of 1885; PA715, the hostility of the Minister of the Interior and of the civil governor of Valencia, the signatures and notarial attestation on the official returns, and the statistics of twenty-two towns - 104,561 not inoculated and 30,491 inoculated, 387 attacks and 104 deaths against 8,406 attacks and 3,512 deaths, liability 6.06 and 9.87 times less; PA716, the objection that the inoculated were of the middle and upper classes with the author's partial concession, his statement that he prints material in defence of Ferran because of the extent of the anti-Ferran literature, and the opening of Ferran's own instructions reprinted from chapter XXI of La inoculacion preventiva contra el colera, Valencia 1886, beginning \"The cholera vaccine is nothing more than a pure culture, in bouillon, of the comma bacillus\"; PA717, the hypodermic syringe of one cubic centimetre, sterilisation by boiling water, and the boiling of unused vaccine. A first-hand witness for the laboratory and an avowedly corrective compiler for the statistics, which he did not collect; reliability is set below the tier for that reason. Pages PA719 and PA737 appear in the search results but returned no image src in the click3 map." }, { "id": "hajj-hussein-2015-vaccines-through-centuries", "title": "Vaccines Through Centuries: Major Cornerstones of Global Health", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4659912/", "publisher": "Frontiers in Public Health, 2015 (open access, PubMed Central PMC4659912)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Peer-reviewed review of vaccine history; body text is extractable HTML, not page images. Used for one sentence only, quoted in the object: the first cholera vaccine used to immunize humans was a live vaccine developed by Jaime Ferran (1852-1929) which provided a high level of protection during the 1884 epidemic in Spain. The article gives no numbers, no efficacy figures and no mention of the commissions, and it dates the epidemic to 1884 where the contemporary report places the mass inoculations in 1885; reliability reflects that thinness on this point." }, { "id": "lopez-2014-killed-oral-cholera-vaccines", "title": "Killed oral cholera vaccines: history, development and implementation challenges", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4144262/", "publisher": "Therapeutic Advances in Vaccines, 2014 (open access, PubMed Central PMC4144262). Anna Lena Lopez, Maria Liza Antoinette Gonzales, Josephine G. Aldaba and G. Balakrish Nair", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Peer-reviewed review; body text is extractable HTML. Used for a single corroborating sentence, quoted in the object: the first cholera vaccine was developed by Ferran in 1885 and used in mass vaccination campaigns in Spain. The article carries nothing further on Ferran - no counts, no efficacy figures, no evaluation commissions - and is registered as the independent modern witness to the priority and the date, against which the 1884 dating of the Frontiers review is set." }, { "id": "guyot-liste-litteraire-philocophe-1842", "title": "C. Guyot and R. T. Guyot, Liste litteraire philocophe, ou Catalogue d'etude de ce qui a ete publie jusqu'a nos jours sur les sourds-muets, sur l'oreille, l'ouie, la voix, le langage, la mimique, les aveugles etc.", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=cg5bAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA2", "publisher": "Groningue, J. Oomkens, Imprimeur de l'Universite, 1842. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "A scholarly catalogue of the literature on the deaf, 588 pages, compiled by two instructors of deaf-mutes at Groningen. Read as page scans at 1600 pixels wide on 2026-08-11; the printed page number runs two ahead of the PA page id in this scan, so the entries cited as printed pages 2, 4, 8, 123, 125 and 128 are pids PA0-PA2, PA6, PA121, PA123 and PA126. Pages opened and read - PR3, the title page with the Groningue 1842 imprint of J. Oomkens and the authors styled instituteurs de sourds-muets; printed page 2, the full bibliographic entry for Bonet's Reduccion de las letras, Madrid, Francisco Marco de Angulo, 1620, in quarto with about eight figures and one plate, with the footnote on the Dutch translation left in manuscript, the German translation reported in progress by Weiss of Munich in 1838, the French extracts in Degerando, and Bonet's death about 1629; printed page 8, the entry for Hervas y Panduro's Escuela Espanola de Sordo-mudos, Madrid 1795, two volumes, written at Rome, with the footnote on its dedication to a descendant of the Ponce family; printed page 125, the head Ponce with the reference to Nicolas Antonio's Bibliotheca Hispana and to Joecher's Gelehrten-Lexicon \"ou l'on trouve affirme que Ponce est le veritable auteur du livre de Bonet\", and the long footnote on Ramon de la Sagra's annotation of 9 July 1838 that the original work of Pedro Ponce had just been found in the monastery of San Salvador de Ona, on Gallardo's circular of 19 January 1838 and on the two rival accounts of where Ponce took the idea; printed page 128, the Bonet cross-references and the footnote that according to some authors Bonet's pupil was the younger brother of the same Constable of Castile - a sentence that continues past the foot of the page opened. A bibliography and not a witness: it is reliable on what was printed and where, and it reports the authorship dispute rather than settling it." }, { "id": "nebreda-tratado-pronunciacion-sordomudos-1870", "title": "Carlos Nebreda y Lopez, Tratado teorico-practico para la ensenanza de la pronunciacion de los sordo-mudos", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=OrRbAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA4", "publisher": "Madrid, Imprenta del Colegio Nacional de Sordo-Mudos y de Ciegos, calle de San Mateo num. 5, 1870. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "A working textbook of the Spanish national college for the deaf and the blind, 72 pages with plates, read as page scans at 1600 pixels wide on 2026-08-11. Pages opened and read - PP1, the front cover and title page giving the author as director of the Colegio Nacional de Sordo-Mudos y de Ciegos and professor of its class of methods and procedures, with the Madrid 1870 imprint of the college's own press; printed page 3, the opening of the PARTE TEORICA on speech and on what articulated speech can and cannot be for a deaf pupil; printed page 4, Ponce de Leon as the first to instruct pupils in speech in Spanish, Latin and Greek, Ambrosio de Morales and Francisco Valles as witnesses, Feijoo's citation of the chapel-foundation deed granted at Ona by Ponce, Bonet as successor of Ponce and author of the first book known on the subject written with Ponce's work at hand, the later Spanish line from Ramirez de Carrion to Fernandez Villabrille, and Bonet's leather tongue and mirror; printed page 5, the author's criticism of the mirror and of Hernandez's profile sections, the confused photographed faces shown at the Aragonese exhibition of 1868, and his own system of nineteen drawn faces with the correspondence of each letter to the manual alphabet. First-hand for its own method and for the state of the Madrid college in 1870; a partisan and second-hand witness for the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and openly nationalist on the priority question, which is why reliability sits below the tier and the claims resting on him carry 0.7 to 0.8." }, { "id": "diccionario-universal-mexico-1854-tomo-iv", "title": "The articles HIPOLITOS (Orden de la caridad de S. Hipolito) and JUANINOS DE MEXICO in the Diccionario universal de historia y de geografia, tomo IV, H - LYT", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=LcBa9gWcXpoC&pg=PA127", "publisher": "Mexico, tipografia de Rafael, calle de Cadena num. 13, 1854; the Mexican reissue of the Madrid Diccionario universal, with articles on Mexican subjects added by its Mexican editors and marked in the text with an asterisk. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Read as page scans at 1600 pixels wide on 2026-08-11; the printed page number equals the PA page id in this scan and the volume carries a working OCR search layer. Pages opened and read - PA127, the end of the classical article HIPOLITO and the whole opening of the starred Mexican article HIPOLITOS, with the 1566 foundation by Bernardino Alvarez as a vecino of Mexico City, the hospital founded extramuros under archiepiscopal licence and dedicated to St Hippolytus as patron of Mexico in memory of 13 August, the dedication of that first hospital to the dementes of the city who had nowhere to be cared for, the approval of the rules by the archbishop and the brief signed by Sixtus V, the second hospital at Puebla under San Roque, the congregation titled Caridad or San Hipolito, the Hospital del Espiritu Santo and, on Bonanni's authority, the Hospital Real built for the Indians, and the two contradictory acts of Clement VIII of 2 April and 1 October 1594; PA128, the mission of Fr Juan Cabrera to Rome in 1700, the bull of Innocent XII of 20 May 1700 erecting the congregation into a religious order under the rule of St Augustine, the brief of 3 July 1700 with its pase by the Council of the Indies on 27 November, Clement XI in 1701, the mother house serving as hospital of the demented and built without sparing expense by the old tribunal del consulado, the list of houses taken from the Escudo de armas de Mexico of 1746, the suppression by the Cortes in 1820 executed in January 1821 except at Puebla, the last general Fr Jose Alarcon, and the sentence that the institution was exclusively Mexican; PA489, the starred article JUANINOS DE MEXICO with the earlier hospitals of the capital (Jesus founded by Cortes, the Real erected by the king for the Indians only, the Amor de Dios founded by Zumarraga for the bubosos), the insufficiency of their number against population growth and repeated epidemics, Dr Pedro Lopez as one of the first professors of medicine in New Spain, the praise of Juan de Arce in the Proximo Evangelico and the passage of Davila Padilla's Dominican chronicle dated by the editors to 1592; PA490, the 1582 donation of the disused public alhondiga, the hermitage of Nuestra Senora de los Desamparados, the wards for sick of both sexes, the cuna for exposed children placed under a confraternity of gente acomodada, the name Epifania, the succession of the founder's son Dr Jose Lopez and the cession of the patronage to the crown, the royal cedula of 1602 and the arrival of four Juaninos on 18 October 1603, the indisculpable indiferencia that met them, the son's resistance to the handover, the delivery by the oidor decano Pedro de Otalora, the 24 February 1604 against 25 February 1624 disagreement with the Torquemada sentence of 1611 adduced against it, and Alegre's statement that the foundling crib had to be given up for want of alms. Reliability is set at 0.7, below the tier, and for stated reasons - the volume is a reference work of 1854 writing about the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; it quotes Bonanni, Davila Padilla, Arce, Alegre, Betancur, Torquemada and the order's general chronicle at second hand, none of which was opened here; it misdates the pontificate in its own first line on the Hipolitos, placing 1566 under Gregory XIII, who was elected in 1572; and its writer is openly campaigning for the restoration of the suppressed order. It is good evidence of what a well-informed Mexican compiler could assemble from the printed record in 1854, and no evidence at all of patient numbers, treatment or outcomes, of which it contains none." }, { "id": "huguet-termes-2009-madrid-hospitals", "title": "Madrid Hospitals and Welfare in the Context of the Hapsburg Empire", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2836219/", "publisher": "Teresa Huguet-Termes, Medical History Supplement 29 (2009), 64-85. Open access in PubMed Central, PMCID PMC2836219, PMID 20224699", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Peer-reviewed history of the Madrid hospital and welfare system under the Habsburgs; full text read on 2026-08-11. Registered here for the peninsular comparison only, and cited for four things within its evidence - that the General Hospital of Madrid was placed under the protection of a member of the Royal Council; that \"from its inception in 1581\" it \"was administered by Bernardino de Obregon and staffed by the brothers of a society he had founded\", which is the same lay-brotherhood arrangement appearing in Mexico in the same generation; that its income included from 1584 a share in \"the profits from the performance of plays staged in the city\" and \"the excise taxes levied on coal, oil and meat\"; and the patient testimony collected in the consolidation dispute, \"Many patients stated that they were attended with great love and charity. Others said that this was not the case.\" The article says nothing about the transfer of these institutions to the Spanish American colonies and is not cited for anything American." }, { "id": "robins-hagan-2012-andean-mercury", "title": "Mercury Production and Use in Colonial Andean Silver Production: Emissions and Health Implications", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3346781/", "publisher": "Environmental Health Perspectives 120(5):627-631, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Nicholas A. Robins and Nicole A. Hagan, May 2012, doi 10.1289/ehp.1104192, PMCID PMC3346781, open access. Full text read on 2026-08-11 and the figures re-checked on a second reading the same day. What was read and verified - cinnabar mining and refining began at Huancavelica in 1564 and amalgamation was adopted at Potosi in the early 1570s; an estimated 17,000 metric tons of mercury vapour emitted at Huancavelica and 39,000 at Potosi between 1564 and 1810; the two together more than 25 per cent of the 196,000 metric tons emitted in all of Latin America between 1500 and 1800; approximately 136,000 metric tons of silver produced in Latin America between 1550 and 1800 and 18,000 metric tons at Potosi city between 1574 and 1735; the mita levy on men between 18 and 50 for two months at Huancavelica or twelve at Potosi; the mercury-to-silver consumption ratio estimated between 1:1 and 2:1 with 1.7 assumed; approximately 85 per cent of the mercury brought to Potosi released as vapour; the colonial testimony quoted by the authors from Jose de Acosta (about 1590), Damian de Jeria (1604) and Pedro de Onate (1629); and the statement that widespread contamination is still present in both towns, in ambient soil and in residences built of adobe brick. The authors state their own uncertainties - production records, smelter efficiency, contraband production estimated at 25 to 30 per cent, and loss rates during processing - and the emission figures are carried in this corpus as estimates for that reason." }, { "id": "cooke-2011-precolumbian-mercury-bolivia", "title": "Pre-Colombian Mercury Pollution Associated with the Smelting of Argentiferous Ores in the Bolivian Andes", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3357727/", "publisher": "Ambio 40(1):18-25, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences / Springer", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Colin A. Cooke, Prentiss H. Balcom, Charles Kerfoot, Mark B. Abbott and Alexander P. Wolfe, doi 10.1007/s13280-010-0086-4, PMCID PMC3357727, open access. Full text read on 2026-08-11. The PMC record gives the article as Ambio 40(1):18-25 with a 2010 online date and a 2011 issue; both are recorded here rather than picking one. What was read and verified - a sediment core from Laguna Lobato, six kilometres east of Cerro Rico de Potosi; mercury enrichment beginning as early as the twelfth century and peaking about 1250 AD at 2,000 ppb with a flux of 325 micrograms per square metre per year, roughly twenty and twenty-two times background respectively; indigenous smelting in wind-drafted kilns using galena as flux as the source; and, after the adoption of amalgamation, values that decline but stay elevated at more than 300 ppb and 80 micrograms per square metre per year, with the authors concluding that approximately 70 per cent of the total mercury pollution inventory in that lake's sediment predates amalgamation. This is one lake recording local smelting, not a regional emissions budget, and the claim built on it in this corpus says so." }, { "id": "garcia-gomez-2007-almaden-mercury-exposure", "title": "Exposure to mercury in the mine of Almaden", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2078521/", "publisher": "Occupational and Environmental Medicine 64(6):389-395, BMJ Publishing Group", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Montserrat Garcia Gomez, Juan Domingo Caballero Klink, Paolo Boffetta and co-authors, June 2007, doi 10.1136/oem.2006.030940, PMCID PMC2078521, open access. Full text read on 2026-08-11. What was read and verified - the two stages of production, underground extraction of cinnabar and distillation in furnaces with condensation of the vapour; the mines described as more than 2000 years old and the oldest known in the world, with the Romans the first to extract mercury systematically; the statement that around 1550 Bartolome de Medina developed a technique that benefited silver minerals through amalgamation with mercury, causing a dramatic increase in demand and extending to the mines of New Spain and later to Peru; the technological sequence at Almaden itself (Cincinnati furnaces replacing Spirek furnaces in 1952, drilling with water from 1960, ventilation improved in the 1970s, inverted crater extraction in the mid-1980s); measured peaks over 1950-1994 of 2.26 milligrams per cubic metre in air during drilling and 3.37 at the furnaces, 2194 micrograms per litre in urine and 374 in blood; and the end of mining in 2001 and of metallurgical activity in 2004. The paper does not discuss forced labour, the miners' hospital, or shipment records to the Americas, and nothing of that kind is drawn from it here." }, { "id": "pinosova-2021-occupational-disease-chronology", "title": "Occupational Disease as the Bane of Workers' Lives: A Chronological Review of the Literature and Study of Its Development in Slovakia. Part 1", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8197831/", "publisher": "International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18(11):5910, MDPI", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Miriama Pinosova, Miriam Andrejiova, Miroslav Badida and Marek Moravec, 2021, doi 10.3390/ijerph18115910, PMCID PMC8197831, open access. Full text read on 2026-08-11. Used here for one thing only - that a general chronology of the occupational-disease literature, written by authors with no stake in Spanish history, lists Jose Pares y Franques (1720-1798) and his Catastrofe morboso de las minas mercuriales de la villa de Almaden del Azogue among the works of the field, while naming Bernardino Ramazzini (died 1714) as the acknowledged father of occupational medicine. Reliability is set at 0.7, below the tier, because the treatment of Pares is a single line in a survey whose subject is Slovakia and because the survey is not a study of the Almaden monograph; the monograph itself could not be opened from this container. The claim bound to it is priced accordingly." }, { "id": "bernaldez-rua-figueroa-almaden-1861", "title": "Memoria sobre las minas de Almaden y Almadenejos", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=YK1AAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA115", "publisher": "Fernando Bernaldez and Ramon Rua Figueroa, Imprenta Nacional, 1861, 327 pages. Full-view digitisation of the University of California copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "Official Spanish state memoir on the Almaden and Almadenejos mercury mines, read as page scans on 2026-08-11 through the click3 page-map and signed page images. The volume's about page does not state the place of publication; the imprint reads Imprenta Nacional and nothing more is claimed here. It is a government document about a government mine and is therefore an interested witness on the administration of the establishment - which is what makes its own account of the miners' disease evidence rather than complaint. Pages opened and read - PA115, the existence of mercury vapour in the underground workings called \"un hecho de todo punto innegable\", the unpleasant taste, abundant salivation, inflammation of the gums and mouth ulcers that medical science calls thialismo, the conditions of the men at the face, the statement that the data of the establishment's Hospital and the death books of the villa are \"la prueba mas dolorosa y mas elocuente\" of the ills that weigh on those miners and \"la mas elevada protesta\" against the hard and unpremeditated assertions of Bowles in his Geografia fisica de Espana, and the introduction of the report supplied by Gervasio Sanchez Aparicio, physician-surgeon of the miners' Hospital; PA117, the continuation of that report - the general affection of stupor, cramps and continuous pains that with very few exceptions all the workers suffer, the absorption of mercury through the whole surface of the body and by stomach and airways producing skin affections, deep mouth ulcers with loss of the teeth and digestive intoxications, chest affections from air fouled by gases and impalpable cinnabar dust ranking second - and the hospital tables that follow, the miners assisted in the establishment's Hospital from 1844 to 1855 classified as internal or medical and external or surgical, 5,047 internal cases of which 2,281 are discarded as due to common causes leaving 2,766, of whom 459 died, and 2,701 external cases of which 332 are ordinary affections independent of mine work, leaving 1,369; PA295, the argument for selling the mines, resting on the statement that the almost entirety, or at least the greater part, of the consumption of quicksilver is limited to the treatment of the silver minerals of America by the system of patios, and the authors' expectation that the day would come when those ores would be worked by the methods of Becquerel, Ziervogel or Augustin." }, { "id": "hutchins-1972-water-rights-nineteen-western-states-vol-iii", "title": "Water Rights Laws in the Nineteen Western States, Volume III", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_-agliyULsC&pg=PA385", "publisher": "Wells A. Hutchins, completed by Harold H. Ellis and J. Peter DeBraal; Miscellaneous Publication No. 1206, U.S. Department of Agriculture (Economic Research Service, Natural Resource Economics Division), 1972. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "The standard United States reference treatise on western water law, read as page scans on 2026-08-11. Registered as secondary rather than primary on purpose: the volume is a digitised original printing and the lettering of its own binding was read for the imprint, but almost everything cited from it here - Espejo in 1582-1583, Onate's ditch of 1598, the holdings of the New Mexico and California supreme courts - reaches this corpus only through Hutchins's summary of documents and reports that could not be opened from this container. It is an official publication of the United States Department of Agriculture rather than of any party to the disputes it describes, and it argues against the doctrine most favourable to a Spanish pedigree, which is why its reliability is set high. Pages opened and read - PP1, the binding, giving title, Volume III, author, the two men who completed it and Miscellaneous Publication No. 1206 of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the year 1972 coming from the Google Books catalogue record and not from any page opened; PA180, the influence of Spanish-Mexican water rights on California law, the gold miners of the Sierra Nevada as the source of the appropriation philosophy there, Lux v. Haggin, Wiel in 1911, and the summary judgement that Spanish-Mexican water law made little if any impression on California law except as to cities succeeding pueblos; PA385, the cession of 1848 and the dates of territory and statehood, irrigation antedating the Spaniards, the chroniclers of Coronado, Espejo on the ditches around Socorro and at Acoma, the community ditch as an adjunct of Indian pueblos, and Onate at San Juan in 1598 with some 1,500 Indians assisting the labour; PA386, the definition of the community or public acequia, the quotation from Snow v. Abalos, the derivation of the old acequias' rights from Spanish and Mexican laws and customs, the Kearny Code and the first territorial legislature; PA387, the statutory exemptions and sections, the definition and origin of the pueblo water right, its adoption by New Mexico in 1959, and the statement that the California decisions on which that rests are predicated on meagre Spanish-Mexican authority and a mere judicial presumption; PA388, the extent of the right, the two New Mexico decisions in which pueblo claims failed for want of a pueblo and for want of a royal grant, and the Cartwright decision of 1959 with its three-to-two vote and its silence on Spanish or Mexican authority." }, { "id": "sparks-1829-diplomatic-correspondence-vol-ii", "title": "The Diplomatic Correspondence of the American Revolution, Volume II: the letters of Arthur Lee", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=_l4-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA143", "publisher": "Edited by Jared Sparks; published under the direction of the President of the United States, from the original manuscripts in the Department of State, conformably to a resolution of Congress; N. Hale, and Gray & Bowen, 1829. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-11", "notes": "An edition printed by resolution of Congress from manuscripts then held in the Department of State, read as page scans on 2026-08-11. It carries letters and one merchant's invoice in full, which is why it is registered primary; the deductions that hold its reliability at 0.85 are stated rather than hidden. The page-image endpoint served no title page for this copy, so the imprint above is taken from the Google Books catalogue record, while the volume number is from the signature line \"VOL. II.\" printed at the foot of pages 105 and 121 and from the running head \"DIPLOMATIC CORRESPONDENCE.\" The letters are an 1829 editor's transcription, not the manuscripts, and one document cited here is the editor's own summary in the table of contents rather than a letter opened in full - the claim bound to it says so and is carried lower for it. Arthur Lee is also an interested witness in his own quarrel with Silas Deane over the public accounts, which is visible on one of the pages read. Pages opened and read - PA45, Lee to the Count de Florida Blanca from Vitoria on 17 March 1777, restating what Grimaldi had given him as the intentions of the King of Spain, and Lee's statement that he had reported them to Congress in guarded terms without names; PA105, Lee to Messrs Gardoqui and Sons at Bilboa on 15 November 1777 about the difficulty in America over whether supplies already arrived through their house were for Congress or for Mr Gerry; PA121, Lee to the Committee of Foreign Affairs from Paris on 19 December 1777, directing that the naval stores collected at Bilboa be shipped the moment the Court of Spain agrees to furnish the money, with the signature line VOL. II.; PA142, the end of a letter of 31 March 1778 to Franklin and Deane demanding a settlement of the public accounts, and the opening of James Gardoqui and Co. to Arthur Lee, Bilboa 1 April 1778, reducing the commission to 3 per cent; PA143, the remainder of that letter and the invoice of 1 April 1778 in full, with its figures, its ship, master, port and consignee, and the note placing it to the debit of Arthur Lee; PR15, page xv of the table of contents, the editor's summaries of the loan correspondence of July to September 1778." }, { "id": "greenhow-oregon-california-1845", "title": "The History of Oregon and California, and the Other Territories on the North-West Coast of North America; accompanied by a Geographical View and Map of those Countries, and a Number of Documents as Proofs and Illustrations of the History — Second Edition, revised, corrected, and enlarged", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=jCUtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP9", "publisher": "Robert Greenhow, Translator and Librarian to the Department of State of the United States; Boston, Charles C. Little and James Brown; London, John Murray, 1845. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-12. Registered secondary rather than primary although the printing itself was opened, because the claims it carries here are about voyages of 1774-1779 that the author reports from manuscript journals he obtained from Madrid, not about what this 1845 book is. The motive is on the title page and is the reason reliability sits below the tier - the author is the librarian of the United States Department of State, the work restates a Senate memoir of 1840, and the epigraph is Coleridge on \"the possible destiny of the United States of America, as a nation of a hundred millions of freemen, stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific\". It is a brief for the American claim to Oregon, which is what makes its concessions to Spanish priority worth citing and its dismissals worth quoting alongside them. Pages opened and read - PP7 half-title; PP9 the full title page and imprint; PR14 the contents of chapters I-IV, including the chapter IV summary \"Exploring Voyages of the Spaniards under Perez, 114, Heceta and Bodega, 117, and Arteaga and Bodega, 125 - Discovery of Nootka Sound, Norfolk Sound, and the Mouth of the Columbia River, 120 - Importance of these Discoveries, 124\"; PA114 the three voyages of 1774-1779 and the footnote naming the Perez narrative, the journal of Friar Tomas de la Pena and the observations of the pilot Martinez as manuscript copies procured from Madrid; PA115 the sailing from San Blas and the landfall of 18 July 1774; PA116 Port San Lorenzo and Nootka, the Martinez claim refused, and the concealment of the accounts; PA118 Port Trinidad, the cross and Vancouver in 1793; PA119 the killing of seven men at Punta de Martires and the officers' opinions given in writing; PA120 the opening of 15 August 1775 and the Columbia; PA121 Bodega and Maurelle beyond the 56th parallel, Mount San Jacinto, Port Remedios and Port Guadalupe; PA124 the summary of what 1775 established and the London Annual Register notice; PA126 the 1779 voyage judged worthless, Ensenada de Regla, Isla de la Magdalena, and the Spanish flag absent north of Cape Mendocino until 1788." }, { "id": "orth-alaska-place-names-1967", "title": "Dictionary of Alaska Place Names — Geological Survey Professional Paper 567", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=0y48AQAAMAAJ&pg=PR3", "publisher": "Donald J. Orth; United States Department of the Interior, Geological Survey; United States Government Printing Office, Washington, 1967. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-12. A federal nomenclature authority rather than a history - its own title page states that the principal names listed \"conform with nomenclature established through decisions of the U.S. Board on Geographic Names or are recognized by the Board as standard names for use on Federal maps and other publications\" - and it is registered secondary and cited only for the explorer entries in its front section, never for the course of a voyage. Pages opened and read - PR3 the title page, author, series number, Board on Geographic Names statement and 1967 imprint; PA9 the alphabetical list of the sources of Alaskan names, carrying the cross-reference \"Bucareli, Antonio Maria: 1775-79. See Spanish Expeditions.\" between British Admiralty and Russian entries, and the Caamano entry on the 1792 voyage of the Aranzazu and Vancouver's use of his maps; PA33 the continuation of the Spanish Expeditions entry, covering the 1775 sailing of the Santiago under Bruno Heceta and the Sonora under Bodega y Quadra, the possession taken near present-day Sitka, the discovery and naming of Bucareli Bay, and the 1779 expedition of La Princesa and La Favorita with its dates and its northern limit." }, { "id": "gayarre-louisiana-spanish-domination-1854", "title": "History of Louisiana — The Spanish Domination", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=9kgUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1", "publisher": "Charles Gayarre; Redfield, 110 and 112 Nassau Street, New York, 1854. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-12. Registered secondary and at a reliability below the tier. The author is a Louisiana writer publishing in English in New York seventy years after the events, the volume is dedicated to George Bancroft as \"the historian whose fame is the pride of his country\", and its title frames the period as a domination that ended - so the frame is an American one and the Spanish material reaches the page through his translation. What raises it above ordinary narrative is that the passages used here quote and footnote a specific document, the despatch of Governor Miro of 1 April 1788, at length and in the first person. Pages opened and read - PR1 the title page and imprint; PR3 the dedication to Bancroft; PA167 the opening of chapter IV on Miro's administration, the leprosy in Louisiana, Ulloa's abandoned confinement at the Balize, and the hospital erected by the cabildo on the ground called La terre des Lepreux; PA203 the fire of Good Friday 21 March 1788 with its hour, its origin in the house of the military treasurer, its 856 buildings and the footnote to Miro's despatch; PA204 the tents and rations of rice for about seven hundred persons, the three vessels sent to Philadelphia, the 24,000 dollars for flour, the loss figure sent to Madrid, and the opening of the quoted despatch on public education naming the four teachers sent from Spain in 1772; PA205 Unzaga's refusal to compel attendance, the collapse of the school to never more than thirty pupils and sometimes six, Almonaster's free room after the fire, and Miro on the difficulty of introducing the Spanish language." }, { "id": "humboldt-political-essay-v1-1811", "title": "Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain, translated from the original French by John Black, volume I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=SjsOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA212", "publisher": "Alexander de Humboldt; London: printed for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, and H. Colburn, and W. Blackwood and Brown and Crombie, Edinburgh, 1811", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The first English edition of the Essai politique, read as page scans on 2026-08-12; title page confirmed at PR1 (vol. I, John Black translation, London 1811). Humboldt was in New Spain in 1803 and 1804, so the book is a contemporary witness for the state of the establishments he saw and a reported, second-hand source for the life of a man who died in 1786 - objects built on the biographical pages are tiered accordingly. He writes as an open advocate of colonial scientific talent, and the translator adds footnotes of his own with a sharper edge than the text. Pages opened and read: PA211 (the progress of intellectual cultivation at Havana, Lima, Santa Fe, Quito, Popayan and Caracas; the patriotic society of the island of Cuba; the sentence running over to the next page that no city of the new continent, not even excepting those of the United States, can display such scientific establishments as the capital of Mexico); PA212 (the School of Mines under Elhuyar, the Botanic Garden and the Academy of Painting and Sculpture; the title Academia de los Nobles Artes de Mexico; its origin in the patriotism of several Mexican individuals and the protection of the minister Galvez; the government's grant of a building; the collection of casts finer than any in Germany, the Apollo of Belvidere and the Laocoon carried over mountain roads, at a cost to the king of 200,000 francs with the translator's conversion to 8,334 pounds); PA213 (the proposal to gather the Mexican basalt and porphyry monuments in a court of the academy as works of a semibarbarous people beside the forms of Greece and Italy; revenues of 125,000 francs, of which the government 60,000, the body of Mexican miners nearly 25,000 and the consulado more than 1,500; the influence claimed on the symmetry of buildings and the hewing of stone at Mexico, Guanaxato and Queretaro; Tolsa's equestrian statue of Charles IV); PA214 (instruction communicated gratis; the rooms lit by Argand's lamps holding some hundreds of young people every evening, drawing from relievo and living models and copying designs of furniture, chandeliers and bronzes; the sentence on rank, colour and race being confounded in a country where the prejudices of the nobility against the casts are inveterate); PA218 (mathematics better taught at the School of Mines than at the university, the integral and differential calculi; the taste for astronomy in Mexico and the three names Velasquez, Gama and Alzate, with Alzate called the worst informed of them); PA219 (Alzate's Gazetta de Litteratura; Velasquez born 21 July 1732 at the farm of Santiago Acebedocla near the Indian village of Tizicapan; the smallpox communicated to his father at the age of four; the uncle, parish priest of Xaltocan, and the Indian teacher Manuel Asentzio; the Indian languages and the hieroglyphical writings learned at Xaltocan); PA220 (the Tridentine college with neither professor nor books nor instruments, and the translator's footnote on chairs as sinecures; Newton and Bacon; the telescopes and quadrants built with Guadalaxara, later professor of mathematics at the Academy of Painting; the advocate's earnings spent on instruments from England; the journey with the visitador Jose de Galvez and the footnote on what a visita generally amounted to); PA221 (the commission to California; the longitude error that had placed the region degrees too far west; the mimosa-plank observatory at St. Anne; the eclipse of 18 June 1769 that Chappe doubted); PA222 (the transit of the sun of 3 June 1769 and the result communicated to Chappe and to the Spanish astronomers Vicente Doz and Salvador de Medina; the geodesical undertaking of 1773; the establishment of the Tribunal and School of Mines from his plans; his death on 6 March 1786 as first director-general with the title of alcalde del corte honorario)." }, { "id": "mayer-mexico-as-it-was-1847", "title": "Mexico, as it was and as it is, third edition, revised and corrected", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=i71nYlqirQMC&pg=PA323", "publisher": "Brantz Mayer, secretary of the United States legation to that country in 1841 and 1842; Philadelphia: G. B. Zieber & Company, 1847", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Travel account and political description by a foreign diplomat resident in Mexico City in 1841 and 1842, read as page scans on 2026-08-12; title page confirmed at PR7. He is a witness for what he saw and a transcriber, not a custodian, of the official figures he reprints, and he prints them to argue a case, so the tier here is secondary rather than primary. Pages opened and read: PR7 (title page); PA38 and PA39 (Letter VIII, the city of Mexico, the plaza and the Parian, the aqueducts seen from the cathedral tower, the medal of 1841 for the new market); PA150 (a festival of San Jose and of Nuestra Senora de la Piedad - a name match, not the Monte de Piedad); PA232 (the pre-Hispanic conduits and aqueducts near Tezcotzingo); PA323 (the Mexican civil list of 28 July 1841: under Instruction, Benevolence and Punishment, the Academy of San Carlos at 13,000 dollars, the Museum at 5,600, the Conservatory of Chapultepec and professor of botany at 2,200, colleges at 20,000, professors of the university at 7,613, school of surgery at 1,500, hospitals, prisons and fortresses at 180,000, the heading totalling 260,409; the war office at 8,000,000 and the whole at 13,155,922 dollars; and his own sentence below the table that the deficiencies must be still more apparent and lamentable)." }, { "id": "perez-diccionario-lengua-maya-1866", "title": "Diccionario de la lengua maya", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Uhxx-rCmjhcC", "publisher": "Juan Pio Perez; Merida de Yucatan, Imprenta Literaria de Juan F. Molina Solis, 1866-1877", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Digitised original, Bodleian Library copy (shelfmark Amer. d. 112 in pencil on the verso of the half-title), 480 sheets, full view on Google Books as volume Uhxx-rCmjhcC. Pages opened and read as images on 2026-08-12 - PP1 and PP2, the binding and the verso with the Bodleian shelfmark; PR1, the title page reading \"DICCIONARIO DE LA LENGUA MAYA por D. JUAN PIO PEREZ. MERIDA DE YUCATAN. IMPRENTA LITERARIA, DE JUAN F. MOLINA SOLIS. 1866 - 1877\"; PR4 to PR8, printed pages IV to VIII of the editor's prologue. Reliability is set at 0.8 rather than at the tier because the prologue is signed by the publisher who paid for the printing and is therefore an interested witness to the book's importance, and because its closing pages carry mid-nineteenth-century diffusionist speculation - Atlantis, maize in a Theban mummy, Caucasian and African types in Catherwood's drawings - alongside its verifiable bibliography. The dating, the manuscript history and the printing narrative are first-hand and are what this corpus cites; the speculative passages are cited only as evidence of what the prologue contains." }, { "id": "storrs-2006-spanish-armed-forces-medicine", "title": "Health, Sickness and Medical Services in Spain's Armed Forces c.1665-1700", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1483209/", "publisher": "Medical History 50(3):325-350, Cambridge University Press", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Christopher Storrs, July 2006, open access in the PubMed Central deposit. Full text read on 2026-08-12 and the quoted sentences re-checked against the article the same day. Peer-reviewed military and medical history built on Spanish, Milanese and Belgian archival series. What was read and verified - the sickness returns for the armies of Lombardy and Catalonia and for the Atlantic fleet; the hospital network at Mechelen, Barcelona, Gerona, Palamos, Rosas, Cadiz, Cartagena and Puerto de Santa Maria; the regimental surgeon and the galleon's physician, surgeon and pharmacist; the Hospitallers of St John of God as nursing staff and the sentence on the order's origin in Granada before 1550; the Barcelona death rates of 5.1 per cent in 1687 and 14.1 per cent in 1694; the budget shares and the 50,000 reales owed to the Barcelona hospital by August 1693; and the author's own comparative judgement that Spanish provision was probably better than England's before the War of the Spanish Succession though inferior to the Dutch Republic's and to France's. The article is critical of its subject throughout, which is why it can carry both the achievement and the cost." }, { "id": "burns-2014-drought-typhus-mexico", "title": "Drought and Epidemic Typhus, Central Mexico, 1655-1918", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3944858/", "publisher": "Emerging Infectious Diseases 20(3):442-447, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Jordan N. Burns, Rodolfo Acuna-Soto and David W. Stahle, 2014, DOI 10.3201/eid2003.131366, open access. Read on 2026-08-12 in the PMC deposit. Cited here for the documentary side of the study rather than for its epidemiological conclusion - the classes of written record used (almanacs, diaries, personal accounts, and medical and death records from hospitals, physicians, cemeteries and municipalities), the compilation of 22 typhus epidemics across 1655-1918, the finding that below-average tree growth, reconstructed drought and low crop yields coincide with 19 of those 22, and the authors' own statements of the record's limits and of the threat of archival destruction. The authors do not separate colonial-period from republican-period documents, which is a real limit on any claim made from this article about the colonial archive specifically, and the claims here are hedged accordingly." }, { "id": "villafane-2024-epidemics-south-america-18c", "title": "From Conquests to Epidemics in 18th-Century South America: A Reflection on Social Resilience and Reconstruction: Review of the Literature", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11586975/", "publisher": "Epidemiologia 5(4):706-714, MDPI", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Jorge H. Villafane, 2024, DOI 10.3390/epidemiologia5040049, open access. Read on 2026-08-12 in the PMC deposit. Reliability is set at 0.7, below the corpus's usual figure for a peer-reviewed article, for two stated reasons - it is a narrative review rather than an archival study, so its figures reach this corpus at one remove from the parish and cabildo books they come from, and it is a single-author review in a young open-access journal outside the established medical-history series. What was read and verified - the sequence of the 1742-1743 outbreak along the Camino Real between Buenos Aires and Lima, the Santa Fe cabildo's novenas of 11 November 1741 and 9 January 1742, the June 1742 Buenos Aires burial figure, the 160 deaths at Purisima Concepcion de los Pampas, bishop Jose de Peralta's 1743 report, the cross-plan hospital at Lima, and the review's own criticism that Bourbon objectives frequently subordinated indigenous and enslaved welfare to imperial interest and that the southern response was fragmented where Mexico City's was systematic." }, { "id": "braso-bortlova-2025-duran-jorda", "title": "Internationalist blood: Karel Holubec and the diffusion of Duran Jorda's method of blood transfusion to Czechoslovakia, 1930s-50s", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12041325/", "publisher": "Medical History 69(1):183-204, Cambridge University Press", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Peer-reviewed article by Carles Braso Broggi and Hana Bortlova-Vondrakova, 2025, DOI 10.1017/mdh.2024.27, open access under CC BY 4.0. Read in full text on 2026-08-12. Verified in the article's own words - the transfusion centre organised at Hospital de Sangre No. 18 after July 1936, the Frontline Blood Transfusion Service of October 1936 and the Republican Army service of July 1937, the method as \"the simplification of the process of extraction from living donors, conservation (following the solution of sodium citrate and refrigeration of Yudin), and the injection with a new device called the auto-injectable\", 3,000 registered donors by July 1937, 6,400 litres collected and 1,900 delivered to the front by February 1938, \"4,000 litres of blood from eleven thousand extractions\" in eighteen months, the Paris congress of October 1937 that \"gave priority to direct blood transfusions and ignored the importance of preserved blood\", the Prague audience of 600 doctors and \"at least six blood transfusions with blood imported from Spain\", the unwritten patent promise, the Lancet paper of 1939, and the 113,500 London volunteer donors of June 1940. The authors are historians of medicine writing an argued case that Cold War isolation hid a semi-peripheral knowledge transfer; the figures are attributed to period sources and the argument is labelled as theirs where this corpus cites it." }, { "id": "dann-2011-hemotransfusion-combat-trauma", "title": "Hemotransfusion in Combat Trauma", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7123871/", "publisher": "In Armed Conflict Injuries to the Extremities, ed. Lerner and Soudry, pp. 81-93, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2011", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Book chapter by Eldad J. Dann, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-16155-1_6, read in full text on 2026-08-12. Cited here only for the two-service picture of the Spanish Civil War - Norman Bethune's Canadian mobile transfusion service in Madrid in 1936-37 and the parallel corps \"organized by Duran F Jorda\" in Barcelona - and for the statement that the practice matured into the London Blitz service. A clinical review chapter, not a work of history: it carries no archival apparatus, which is why the history in this corpus rests on the Medical History article and this source is used for corroboration only." }, { "id": "dobbs-khan-2010-ponseti-life-and-legacy", "title": "The life and legacy of Ignacio Ponseti", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2824215/", "publisher": "Indian Journal of Orthopaedics 44(1):114, 2010", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Memorial article by Matthew B. Dobbs and Shahryar Ahmad Khan, read in full text on 2026-08-12. Source of the biography used here - birth at Ciutadella de Menorca on 3 June 1914, medical school at Barcelona from 1931 to 1936, war service treating fractures and wounds, the escape into France in 1939 while moving wounded soldiers, six months in France, the passage to Mexico and two years of rural general practice, arrival at Iowa City in 1941 to train under Arthur Steindler, the dissection work on hindfoot anatomy, the nonoperative method begun in 1948, the 1963 paper on 67 patients with follow-up of 10 to 27 years, and death at Iowa City on 18 October 2009. Written by clinicians who knew and worked with the subject: warm about him and thin on the war years, which is why the Civil War claims here are confined to what it states and carry no interpretive weight." }, { "id": "shabtai-2014-worldwide-spread-of-ponseti", "title": "Worldwide spread of the Ponseti method for clubfoot", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4133465/", "publisher": "World Journal of Orthopedics 5(5):585-590, 2014", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Survey by Lior Shabtai, Stacy C. Specht and John E. Herzenberg, DOI 10.5312/wjo.v5.i5.585, read in full text on 2026-08-12. Verified figures - evidence of Ponseti activity in 113 of 193 United Nations member states (59%), peer-reviewed published results from only 34 (18%), the method largely confined to Iowa until about 1997 with a sharp increase after 2000, clubfoot incidence of 1 to 2 per 1,000 live births, more than 220,000 affected children born each year in developing nations, the free textbook past 100,000 downloads in more than 30 languages, and delivery by non-physician staff where surgeons are scarce. The authors state their own limitations, including 80 member states with no documented use and unknown penetration inside the countries counted; those limits are carried into the claim rather than dropped." }, { "id": "jayawardena-2011-ponseti-latin-america", "title": "Diffusion of innovation: enhancing the dissemination of the Ponseti method in Latin America through virtual forums", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3215111/", "publisher": "The Iowa Orthopaedic Journal 31:36-42, 2011", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Ethnographic study by Asitha Jayawardena and colleagues with Jose A. Morcuende, read in full text on 2026-08-12. Verified - 33 practitioners at 14 sites across Guatemala (9 practitioners, 5 facilities), Peru (11 practitioners, 3 facilities) and Chile (9 practitioners, 10 facilities); session ratings of 4.75, 4.25 and 3.52 out of 5; barriers reported as financial in Guatemala, equipment and network access in Peru, and conference implementation in Chile. Small, self-reported and authored from the Iowa centre that ran the forums, so it is cited for what the programme did and not as evidence that the programme worked." }, { "id": "faulks-richards-2009-ponseti-vs-french", "title": "Clubfoot treatment: Ponseti and French functional methods are equally effective", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2664441/", "publisher": "Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 467(5):1278-1282, 2009", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Prospective comparative study by Shawne Faulks and B. Stephens Richards at the Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children, DOI 10.1007/s11999-009-0754-5, read in full text on 2026-08-12. Verified - 256 patients with 386 clubfeet (Ponseti 176 patients, 267 feet; French functional 80 patients, 119 feet), initial correction 94.4% against 95%, relapse in 37% against 29% of initially corrected feet, outcomes at a mean 4.3 years good in 72% against 67%, and posteromedial release avoided in 84% of patients by either method. Registered here as the counterpoint source: the authors state the design was not randomised because parents chose the method, the French group was smaller, and follow-up was short." }, { "id": "lopez-carrero-2023-ponseti-systematic-review", "title": "Effectiveness of the Ponseti method in the treatment of clubfoot: a systematic review", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9965124/", "publisher": "International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20(4):3714, 2023", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Systematic review by Elena Lopez-Carrero and colleagues, DOI 10.3390/ijerph20043714, read in full text on 2026-08-12. Verified - 12 randomised controlled trials retained after quality screening, about 783 patients and 1,269 clubfeet, a success rate near 90%, dependence of that result on adherence to the abduction brace, and the authors' own statement that the number of published trials is small because the condition is uncommon. Used for the size and the limits of the evidence base at once." }, { "id": "bussmann-sharon-2009-shadows-of-the-colonial-past", "title": "Shadows of the colonial past - diverging plant use in Northern Peru and Southern Ecuador", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2655273/", "publisher": "Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 5:4, 2009", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Field study by Rainer W. Bussmann and Douglas Sharon, DOI 10.1186/1746-4269-5-4, open access, read in full text on 2026-08-12. Verified in the article's own words - 510 taxa on record for Peru of which \"422 species (83%) were indigenous to Northern Peru, while 87 species (17%) were introductions\"; 215 taxa for Ecuador of which \"179 species (83%) were indigenous to Southern Ecuador, while 36 species (17%) were introductions\"; \"58% of the species sold in Peruvian markets and 41% of the species used in Ecuador were added to the pharmacopoeia within the last 200 years\"; that \"only 41% of the species mentioned by Martinez Companon are still sold nowadays in Peru\", with a further 32% used in the Amazon but off the coastal markets and 27% gone from use; and that \"traditional medicinal practitioners were immediately persecuted once the colonial administration took hold\" with traditional medicine illegal in Ecuador until the constitutional change of 1998, so that \"centuries of prohibition have led to a pronounced abandonment of traditional knowledge\". The eighteenth-century baseline is used at second hand: this corpus has not opened Martinez Companon's own volumes, whose repository is not reachable from this container." }, { "id": "bussmann-sharon-2006-loja-medicinal-plants", "title": "Traditional medicinal plant use in Loja province, Southern Ecuador", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1615866/", "publisher": "Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2:44, 2006", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Earlier field study by the same two authors, DOI 10.1186/1746-4269-2-44, read in full text on 2026-08-12. Verified - \"One hundredseventy-nine species (83%) are indigenous to Southern Ecuador, while 36 species (17%) are introductions\", the statement that many of the introduced species are medicinal plants brought in during colonial times, and the finding that Loja is an outlier of a larger northern Peruvian area where more than 500 species are used, indicating that much original plant knowledge has been lost in Ecuador. Same authors and overlapping region as the 2009 paper, so it corroborates rather than independently confirms; claims that rest on both are marked accordingly." }, { "id": "belena-recopilacion-sumaria-1787-autos", "title": "Recopilación sumaria de los autos acordados de la Real Audiencia de esta Nueva España, que desde el año de 1677 hasta el de 1786 han podido recogerse", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=MzFAAAAAcAAJ&pg=RA2-PP1", "publisher": "Eusebio Bentura Beleña, oidor of the Audiencia of Mexico; impresa en México por Don Felipe de Zúñiga y Ontiveros, calle del Espíritu Santo, año de 1787. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The numbered abstract half of Beleña's compilation, distinct from the \"Copias á la letra\" tome already registered here as belena-recopilacion-sumaria-1787-t2 (a different volume id and a different work). In this digitisation it occupies reading area RA2; the title page is RA2-PP1 and was opened and read on 2026-08-12, giving the wording above and the compiler's offices - oydor of the Audiencia, consultor of the Inquisition, juez protector of Guadalupe, asesor of the post office revenue, of the Juzgado General de Naturales and of the Real Tribunal del Importante Cuerpo de Mineria. Reliability is set below the tier for the same reason as the other tome - the compiler is an insider abstracting the orders of the courts and revenue offices he served, and what he prints is a summary in his own words with the originating cédula, bando or real orden dated in the margin, not the document itself. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-12 - RA2-PA202 and RA2-PA203 (autos CCCLXXI and CCCLXXII, the Hospicio de Pobres of Mexico City and the beggary bando of 5 March 1774), RA2-PA221 (the Real Lotería, its deduction rates, the fourteen yearly draws and the crown's own losses), RA2-PA255 (auto DXX, the foundation of the Monte de Piedad, with the footnote on the real cédula of 8 December 1786), RA2-PA256 (autos DXXI and DXXII, the Monte Pío Militar and the half-pension on marriage), RA2-PA257 and RA2-PA258 (the marriage-licence regime, the no-double-benefit rule, the exclusion of general officers' families, and autos DXXIII and DXXIV on the quarterly returns of discounts and the incorporation of the Ministerio Político de Marina). Further pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-15: RA2-PA125 and RA2-PA126 (autos CXLVII and CXLVIII under the heading \"Cirujanos\" - the four complete courses in the Cátedra de Anatomía erected by royal order in the Hospital General de Naturales, the professor's certificate without which the Protomedicato may not examine a surgeon, with the margin \"Bando de 10 de Abril de 1770. aprobado por Real Cédula de 10 del mismo de 1784\"; and the bando of 24 May 1719 on surgeons attending the wounded without a judge's order, with its 25/50/100-peso ladder); RA2-PA192 (autos CCCXXXII to CCCXXXIV under the headings \"Fiel Contraste\" and \"Fiel Executoría de México\" - the contrastes' fees and oath from the bando of 1 June 1776, the perpetual merced of Charles V and Juana, the ordinances of 1718 confirmed 6 May 1724 and reprinted 1755, and the cacao registration ordinance of the real cédula of 4 February 1761, whose number is printed 84 in the text and 64 in the margin)." }, { "id": "calendario-guia-forasteros-mexico-1792", "title": "Calendario manual y guía de forasteros en México, para el año de 1792", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=BsErYKMkD5EC&pg=PA178", "publisher": "Felipe de Zúñiga y Ontiveros; México, en su oficina, 1791. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The annual almanac and directory of Mexico City, printed by the holder of the calendar privilege. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-12 - PA178 and PA179, the two-page \"Demostracion de las operaciones\" of the Sacro y Real Monte de Piedad de Ánimas from its opening on 25 February 1775 to the end of November 1791, with the pledge and redemption days and the notice that by a new resolution the alms are to be given at the time of the pledge. Reliability is set below the tier because the figures are what the institution reported of itself for print in a directory, with no audit alongside them; the thousands separator in this printing is a \"U\"-shaped glyph, and the totals were checked to add up before any figure was used. Further pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-15: PA109, the entry \"Real Anfiteatro de Anatomia\" with its charter paragraph (creation in 1768 in the Real Hospital de Naturales for the public teaching of practical anatomy and operations of surgery, a catedrático as director and demonstrator, an ayudante substitute for the dissections, and the charge of attending and curing the hospital's sick \"para la mejor instruccion de sus Discípulos\"), with the holders named — Lic. D. Manuel Antonio Moreno, cirujano mayor of the hospital, and Br. D. Alexo Ramon Sanchez as director anatómico; and PT3, the index page listing that entry at 109." }, { "id": "calendario-guia-forasteros-mexico-1797", "title": "Calendario manual y guía de forasteros en México, para el año de 1797", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=t2V15LKm6HUC&pg=PA192", "publisher": "Mariano de Zúñiga y Ontiveros; México, en la oficina del autor, 1796. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The same annual for five years later, printed by the founder's son. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-12 - PA116, the officers of the Sacro y Real Monte de Piedad de Ánimas, headed by an oidor as juez protector and president of the junta particular and including a juez de almoneda; PA192 and PA193, the \"Demostracion\" of everything the foundation had done to the end of 1796, with the pledge and redemption days and the same notice about the alms. Same reliability caveat as the 1792 volume - self reported figures in a directory; the separator glyph here is a reversed \"c\" and every total was checked to add up from its two components before use. Further pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-15: PT1, the index page; PA110, the professors of the Real y Pontificia Universidad, including the catedrático de Anatomía y Cirugía Dr. y Mrô. D. Joseph Gracida, the catedrático de Matemáticas Dr. D. Pedro Gomez de la Cortina, and Martin de Sesé and Vicente Cervantes with their royal chairs; PA115, the officers of the Real Tribunal del Protomedicato, including the \"Alcalde Exâminador de Cirugía, Lic. D. Manuel Moreno, calle de Zuleta\", followed by the entry \"Real Anfiteatro de Anatomía\" with the same charter paragraph the 1792 annual prints; and, at the head of PA116, that establishment's holders in this year - Lic. D. Manuel Antonio Moreno as catedrático director and cirujano mayor of the hospital, and D. Antonio Serrano as disector anatómico." }, { "id": "diccionario-universal-mexico-1854-tomo-v", "title": "Diccionario universal de historia y de geografía, tomo V - the Mexican edition refundida y aumentada con noticias históricas, geográficas, estadísticas y biográficas sobre las Américas", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=btVAAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA762", "publisher": "México, imprenta de F. Escalante y Cª, librería de Andrade, 1854. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.65, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "A mid-nineteenth-century Mexican encyclopaedia, a compilation written some seventy years after the events it reports here and with no citations at the point of use. Registered as secondary and with reliability well below the tier for that reason, and used only where it supplies what the colonial printings cannot - the later fortunes of an institution and the compiler's own explanation of a change in its terms. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-12 - PP9, the title page giving TOMO V, México 1854; PA410, the article on the Mineral del Monte, with the silver extracted in the time of the first conde de Regla; PA762, the articles HOSPICIO and MONTE DE PIEDAD, the founding donation of 300,000 pesos, the cédula of 2 June 1774, the bando of 11 February 1775, the opening on 25 February in the former Jesuit house of San Pedro y San Pablo, the fall of the fund to 105,809 pesos in 1814, and the compiler's account of why the voluntary alms became a fixed charge." }, { "id": "real-ordenanza-intendentes-nueva-espana-1786", "title": "Real Ordenanza para el establecimiento é instruccion de Intendentes de exército y provincia en el reino de la Nueva-España", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=GzNAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP11", "publisher": "De órden de Su Magestad, Madrid, 1786. Full-view digitisation of the New York Public Library copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.95, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The promulgated code itself, read as page scans on 2026-08-12. It is a statement of what the crown ordered, not of what happened in the provinces, and claims bound to it are worded accordingly. Pages opened and read - PP11, the title page giving the full title, \"de órden de Su Magestad\", Madrid and the year 1786; PA1, the preamble over the heading EL REY with the paternal love owed to all vassals \"aun los mas distantes\", the wish to uniform the government of the empires and to put in good order, felicity and defence the dominions \"de las dos Américas\", and the resolution to establish intendants of army and province endowed with authority and competent salaries; PA2, the binding of the intendants to the Leyes de Indias and to the royal ordinances of 4 July 1718 and 13 October 1749, and Article I dividing the district into twelve intendancies \"sin incluir las Californias\", each province to take the name of its capital city; PA19, Article 12, the appointment of subdelegates by formal title and \"sin derechos\" and the prohibition on subdelegates, alcaldes ordinarios, remaining governors \"ni otra persona alguna sin excepcion\" from distributing goods, produce or livestock to Indians, Spaniards, mestizos and the other castes, under the irremissible penalty of losing their value in benefit of the injured natives and paying as much again in three parts to the royal chamber, the judge and the denouncer, with a further consequence on reincidence; PA21, Article 13 conserving to the Indians the right and ancient custom, where it existed, of electing each year among themselves gobernadores or alcaldes and the other offices of república for their purely economic government, and charging those officers with exacting the royal tribute paid in recognition of vassalage and \"suprema proteccion\"; PA155, Article 132, the six per cent premium on tribute collected, one per cent left to the Indian governors or alcaldes as first collectors and \"los cinco por ciento restantes quedarán á su beneficio\"; PR3, the index entries for Article 11 (royal jurisdiction of the extinguished corregimientos and alcaldías mayores passing to the intendants), Article 12 (subdelegate judges in the four causas and the \"penas con que se prohiben los repartimientos\"), Articles 13 and 14 on the conservation and confirmation of Indian elections, and the opening of the Causa de Justicia at Article 15; PR8, the index entries for Articles 40 to 45 on propios y arbitrios and on the Bienes de Comunidades managed by the subdelegate judges in the pueblos de indios and the examination and closing of their accounts; PR11, the index entries for Articles 58 to 64 - ociosos y malentretenidos, vagamundos y mendigos de profesion, fomento of grana, hemp and flax with distribution of crown or private land, cotton and wild silk, agriculture, stock, woods, industry, mining and commerce, and public roads, bridges and causeways." }, { "id": "real-instruccion-de-tierras-15-octubre-1754", "title": "Real Instruccion de 15 de Octubre de 1754 on the sale, composición and confirmation of crown lands in the Indies (printed as Número 10 of the appendix to the Real Ordenanza de Intendentes de Nueva España)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=GzNAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT32", "publisher": "Madrid, 1786, appendix to the Real Ordenanza de Intendentes. Full-view digitisation of the New York Public Library copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The instruction as reprinted thirty-two years later in the official appendix to the 1786 ordinance, where it is headed \"Número 10 — Corresponde al Artículo 81\", read as page scans on 2026-08-12. This is an official reprint rather than the 1754 impression, which is why the reliability is set below that of the ordinance itself; the text is continuous and the article numbering intact. Pages opened and read - PT32, the heading and the opening over EL REY citing the harm done by the royal cédula of 24 November 1735 that required applicants for crown land to come to the royal person; PT33, the preamble on the cost of applying to Madrid exceeding the price of small holdings, on land left \"sin cultura\" and on ground held without title for fear of denunciation, ending in the resolution that mercedes, ventas and composiciones of realengos, sitios and valdíos follow this instruction, and Article I placing the business \"privativamente al cargo\" of the viceroys and presidents; PT36, Article IV leaving holders by sale or composición made before the year 1700 in free and quiet possession \"sin causarles la menor molestia, ni llevarles derechos algunos\" under law 15, title 12, book 4 of the Recopilación, accepting ancient possession as \"título de justa prescripcion\" where titles are lacking, and setting the three-month term of law 11 to cultivate on pain of the land being granted to a denouncer with the same obligation to cultivate; PT38, the suspension of confirmation until unmeasured realengos are measured and appraised with the pecuniary service regulated on the resulting value, Article VII requiring composición of ground occupied beyond the granted limits and adjudicating untitled realengos to denouncers or to the royal patrimony even if cropped, planted or built on, \"sin excepcion de personas ni Comunidades, de qualquier estado y calidad que sean\", and the opening of Article VIII promising recompense to those who denounce lands, sites, waters, valdíos and yermos." }, { "id": "tripodi-2021-pepper-global-expansion", "title": "Global range expansion history of pepper (Capsicum spp.) revealed by over 10,000 genebank accessions", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8403938/", "publisher": "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 118(34):e2104315118", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Tripodi et al., 2021, DOI 10.1073/pnas.2104315118, CC BY 4.0. Full text read on 2026-08-12 through the PMC deposit. Genotyping of 10,038 genebank accessions to reconstruct post-1492 dispersal. Supplies the route evidence used here: Africa as the link between American and Eurasian pepper complements \"owing in part to the triangular transatlantic slave trade and to Portuguese maritime trade routes\"; the statement that the Portuguese had no great interest in introducing pungent peppers to Europe but favoured them in the Far East as a cheaper surrogate for black pepper; East Eurasian material sourced directly or indirectly from the South/Mesoamerican pool; and C. annuum at roughly 78% of duplicated accessions." }, { "id": "silvar-2022-iberian-pepper-phenomics", "title": "Tracing Back the History of Pepper (Capsicum annuum) in the Iberian Peninsula from a Phenomics Point of View", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9699223/", "publisher": "Plants (Basel) 11(22):3075, MDPI", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Cristina Silvar, Filomena Rocha and Ana M. Barata, 13 November 2022, DOI 10.3390/plants11223075, CC BY 4.0. Full text read on 2026-08-12. Fruit phenomics of Iberian landraces against American accessions. Source of the pungency contrast (Mexico 70% pungent accessions, Iberian Peninsula 67.4% non-pungent), of the Iberian Peninsula as a secondary centre of diversification, of the judgement that C. annuum's success owed to its being the first Capsicum to arrive rather than to any superior agronomic trait, and of the south-east/north-west gradient of similarity to American material. Carries no archival documentation: its history is inference from morphology, and the claims here are pitched accordingly." }, { "id": "chiou-2024-chili-domestication-mexico", "title": "Interdisciplinary insights into the cultural and chronological context of chili pepper (Capsicum annuum var. annuum L.) domestication in Mexico", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11588045/", "publisher": "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 121(47):e2413764121", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Katherine L. Chiou, Andres Lira-Noriega, Emiliano Gallaga, Christine A. Hastorf and Araceli Aguilar-Melendez, 2024, DOI 10.1073/pnas.2413764121, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. Full text read on 2026-08-12. Archaeological seed morphometry from the Archaic to the Postcolonial period, proposing a geographically diffuse and protracted model of domestication with at least two asynchronous events, and lowland Yucatan and southern coastal Guerrero rather than the highlands as the likely settings of early encounters. Explicitly revises the earlier single-centre model, so it is cited here as a current and contested position, not as settled fact. Says nothing about post-1492 dispersal." }, { "id": "gonzalez-perez-2014-capsicum-spain", "title": "New Insights into Capsicum spp Relatedness and the Diversification Process of Capsicum annuum in Spain", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4278865/", "publisher": "PLoS ONE 9(12):e116276", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Susana Gonzalez-Perez, Ana Garces-Claver, Cristina Mallor, Luis E. Saenz de Miera, Oreto Fayos, Federico Pomar, Fuencisla Merino and Cristina Silvar, 29 December 2014, DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0116276, CC BY. Full text read on 2026-08-12. 102 accessions genotyped with 39 microsatellite markers, 51 of them C. annuum landraces mainly from Spain. Source of the limited-gene-pool finding and of the regional pattern within Spain: pungent elongated fruits in the south and centre, sweet blocky and triangular types carrying the non-pungent allele in the north. Contains no archival or documentary history." }, { "id": "denham-2013-sweet-potato-dispersals", "title": "Ancient and historic dispersals of sweet potato in Oceania", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3568348/", "publisher": "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 110(6):1982-1983", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Tim Denham, 2013, DOI 10.1073/pnas.1221569110. Full text read on 2026-08-12. A commentary on Roullier et al.'s PNAS paper, not primary data, and cited here as such: it states the tripartite hypothesis compactly (kumara introduced to eastern Polynesia about 1000-1100 years ago; camote introduced by Spanish galleons sailing between the Philippines and Mexico at approximately AD 1500; batata introduced circuitously by Portuguese traders via Europe in the sixteenth century) and describes the evidence base of chloroplast and nuclear microsatellites on modern and historical herbarium material including specimens from Cook's first voyage of 1769. The underlying PNAS research article (Roullier et al. 2013, DOI 10.1073/pnas.1211049110) could not be opened from this container and is not cited." }, { "id": "roullier-2013-new-guinea-sweet-potato", "title": "On the origin of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) genetic diversity in New Guinea, a secondary centre of diversity", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3656641/", "publisher": "Heredity (Edinburgh) 110(6):594-604, Nature Publishing Group", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "C. Roullier and colleagues, 2013, DOI 10.1038/hdy.2013.14. Full text read on 2026-08-12. 417 New Guinea landraces genotyped with six chloroplast and 11 nuclear microsatellites. Source of the three introduction lines with their proposed dates, including the wording of the Spanish hypothesis - that Acapulco-Manila galleons \"could have spread sweet potato clones from Mexico to the Philippines very soon after Spanish conquest of these islands in 1522\" - whose conditional verb and loose date are quoted rather than smoothed here. Also the ~1700 introduction to the New Guinea highlands and the ~5000 estimated cultivars." }, { "id": "barber-higham-2021-kumara-new-zealand", "title": "Archaeological science meets Maori knowledge to model pre-Columbian sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) dispersal to Polynesia's southernmost habitable margins", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8046222/", "publisher": "PLoS ONE 16(4):e0247643", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Ian G. Barber and Thomas F. G. Higham, April 2021, DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0247643, CC BY 4.0. Full text read on 2026-08-12. Bayesian modelling of 24 radiocarbon determinations with SHCal20 and Marine20, starch granule identification (8 granules over 13.2 micrometres with I. batatas characteristics), and four rua kumara pit structures, placing sweet potato in southern New Zealand at 1430-1460 CE at 95% probability, about 150 years after Polynesian settlement of Te Waipounamu. Read here as the counter-evidence to any claim that European shipping first carried the crop across the Pacific. Does not discuss the later European introductions." }, { "id": "glato-2017-west-africa-sweet-potato", "title": "Structure of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) diversity in West Africa covaries with a climatic gradient", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5446114/", "publisher": "PLoS ONE 12(5):e0177697", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Kodjo Glato and colleagues, 26 May 2017, DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0177697, CC BY. Full text read on 2026-08-12. 132 varieties, 112 collected in Togo in 2012 and 20 in Senegal in 2014. Attributes the African introduction to the Portuguese in the sixteenth century, probably first as a tuber in Tanzania, and finds West African diversity 18% lower than American. Does not name which of the batata or camote lines arrived and makes no link to the slave trade; both limits are stated in the claims that cite it." }, { "id": "compania-guipuzcoana-noticias-historiales-1765", "title": "Real Compañia Guipuzcoana de Caracas: noticias historiales practicas de los sucessos, y adelantamientos de esta Compañia, desde su fundacion año de 1728. hasta el de 1764. por todos los Ramos, que comprehende su Negociacion", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=sh5WAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Dispuesto todo por la Direccion de la misma Real Compañia, año de 1765. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The company's own printed account of itself, read as page scans on 2026-08-12. Primary for what the company said and for the figures it laid before the public, and an interested party on every question of whether the monopoly was good for the province - the title page says the volume gathers the earlier printed \"Piezas instructivas, y defensivas de la Compañia\", which is the book describing itself as a defence brief. Reliability is set well below that of a promulgated law for that reason, and the claims bound to it are worded as the company's assertions. Pages opened and read - PP3 and PA1, two impressions of the same title page giving the full title, the span 1728 to 1764 and the authorship \"por la Direccion de la misma Real Compañia, Año de 1765\"; PA23, the paragraph naming the charges made against the company as \"las odiosas voces, de opresion, de tyrania, de estanco\" and dismissing \"el ultimo alboroto suscitado por Juan Francisco de Leon\" as a sedition got up by the company's rivals \"sin adhesion de Pueblo alguno\"; PA25, the list of benefits claimed (to the state, the royal treasury, public convenience in Spain, the interested shareholders) and the sentence that the foreign nations' \"dolor de sus pérdidas, desde que se estableció la Compañia, es el mayor panegyrico que puede hacerse de ella\", followed by paragraph 7 arguing that the León rising is itself the proof of the company's necessity; PA34, the complaint of the vecinos of Caracas in 1733 about the lack of shipping for Spain and the company's answer that it offered them the whole hold of the Santa Rosa, three thousand fanegas, and that they declined; PA37, the deputies of the Caracas cabildo at court in 1748 pressing for an outlet for cacao they described as surplus, and the company's retort asking where that surplus cacao is; PA113, the figures - exports through the Consejo de Indias not exceeding 21,440 fanegas a year on average before 1730, against 80,661 fanegas taken out of the province in 1763 by the company, the country's own growers and private vassals, an increase of 59,221 fanegas; PA120, the claim that the price fell by 20 pesos a fanega to a mean of 40, worth 480,000 pesos a year on 24,000 fanegas and 14,400,000 pesos over the thirty years of the computation, and, in the next paragraph, that the shareholders took an annual return of a scarce 10 per cent on primitive capital over the same thirty years, the reckoning including the doubling of fund and shares made in 1752." }, { "id": "coleccion-decretos-cortes-tomo-i-1813", "title": "Coleccion de los decretos y órdenes que han expedido las Cortes generales y extraordinarias desde su instalacion en 24 de setiembre de 1810 hasta igual fecha de 1811, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=0FxJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA84", "publisher": "Mandada publicar de orden de las mismas. Madrid, en la Imprenta Nacional, año de 1813. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The official edition of the decrees of the Cortes of Cádiz, published by order of the Cortes themselves, read as page scans on 2026-08-12. It is evidence of what was enacted at Cádiz and not of what was obeyed in America, where much of the continent was already at war; claims bound to it are worded accordingly. Pages opened and read - PR1, the title page with the span 24 September 1810 to 24 September 1811, \"tomo I\", Madrid, Imprenta Nacional, 1813; PR8, the index entries for decretos XXXIX to XLVI with their dates and page numbers, including XLI at page 82 and XLII at page 84; PA9, the close of decreto IV and the head of DECRETO V de 15 de octubre de 1810, \"Igualdad de derechos entre los españoles europeos y ultramarinos: olvido de lo ocurrido en las provincias de América que reconozcan la autoridad de las Cortes\", with the sentence that the Spanish dominions in both hemispheres form \"una sola y misma monarquía, una misma y sola nacion, y una sola familia\" and that the natives originating in those European or overseas dominions \"son iguales en derechos á los de esta Península\"; PA42, the head of DECRETO XX de 5 de enero de 1811, \"Se prohiben las vexaciones hechas hasta aquí á los indios primitivos\", opening on the scandalous abuses and innumerable vexations observed against the indios primitivos of America and Asia; PA43, its operative text - the order to viceroys, presidents of audiencias, governors, intendants and magistrates to cut the abuses out by the root, the prohibition on any person in ecclesiastical, civil or military authority, on any pretext however rational it may seem, afflicting the Indian in his person or causing him the slightest harm in his property, the charge to the protectores de indios to defend their personal liberty, privileges and exemptions, and the order that the decree be circulated to every parish priest in America and Asia, read on three consecutive days at parish mass and then passed to each of the cabildos de indios; PA83, the closing dispositions of DECRETO XLI de 12 de marzo de 1811 on the promotion of American agriculture and industry - suppression of the duty on pulperías, free manufacture and sale of aguardiente mezcal in the viceroyalty of Mexico, six pesos fuertes a barrel on it with two taken off the barrel of cane spirit, the maintenance of the recent two reales a pound on tobacco and two per cent over the six of alcabala for the twenty-million-peso loan opened in New Spain, and the invitation to place voluntary sums from the propios and cajas de comunidad de indios into that fund; PA84, DECRETO XLII de 13 de marzo de 1811, extending to the indios and castas of all the American provinces the exemption from tribute granted to those of New Spain, excluding the castas from the distribution of the lands of the pueblos de indios, and ordering that the royal orders forbidding justices to trade in their own jurisdictions \"baxo el especioso título de repartimientos\" be enforced with the greatest rigour; PA149, an unrelated decree of 8 May 1811 on the requisition of church silver, opened and not cited here." }, { "id": "galvez-informe-general-1867", "title": "Informe general que en virtud de real órden instruyó y entregó el Excmo. Sr. Marqués de Sonora ... al Excmo. Sr. Virrey Frey D. Antonio Bucarely y Ursua con fecha de 31 de diciembre de 1771", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=8Hvi2P2Gvt8C&pg=PA54", "publisher": "José de Gálvez, marqués de Sonora, visitador general of New Spain; México, Imprenta de Santiago White, 1867. Yale University Library copy, full-view digitisation, Google Books, volume id 8Hvi2P2Gvt8C", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The report the visitador general of New Spain handed to his incoming viceroy at the close of a six-year inspection, printed in Mexico in 1867 from the manuscript. The catalogue record read on 2026-08-12 gives the title above, the author as José de Gálvez, the imprint \"Imprenta de Santiago White\" and the date 1867, and the extent as 440 pages; the volume map returned 444 page images. Reliability is set below the tier for two reasons that this corpus keeps on the record rather than in a footnote: the document is a self-report by the official whose own measures it describes, and the 1867 sheets were not collated here against any manuscript. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-12: PA54 to PA60, which carry the close of the tobacco section and the whole of the section headed \"RENTA DE CORREOS\", down to the heading \"RENTAS ANTIGUAS Y ORDINARIAS DE ESTA REAL HAZIENDA\" on PA60. Running heads alternate \"INFORME DEL MARQUÉS DE SONORA\" and \"AL VIRREY D. ANTONIO BUCARELY\". Also opened: PP1 to PP4 and PT1 to PT3, which are binding, a Yale digitisation notice and blanks, so the printed title page was not among the images returned and the title here rests on the catalogue record and the running heads." }, { "id": "armas-y-cespedes-esclavitud-en-cuba-1866", "title": "De la esclavitud en Cuba", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=kalg4gAsC1YC&pg=PA156", "publisher": "Francisco de Armas y Cespedes; Madrid, Establecimiento Tipografico de T. Fortanet, 1866; 556 pages", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "A treatise on Cuban slave law by a Cuban writer, read as page scans on 2026-08-12 through the Google Books full-view copy of the Harvard College Library exemplar (Collection on Cuba, gift of Enrique de Cruzat Zanetti, 1906). Registered at secondary and not primary: the author is describing and extracting instruments he does not print in full, so every article of the Reglamento de esclavos of 1842 and every chapter of the Instruccion of 1789 reported from him is his summary and not the text. Reliability is set at 0.7 rather than higher because the book is written from inside the slaveholding order it describes and its author minimises what he records - coartacion, he writes, creates \"una especie de condominio\" over the person of the slave \"lo cual modifica, aunque no gravemente, las relaciones del uno con el otro\" - while at the same time supplying the concessions that cut against his own case, which is what makes it usable. Pages read: PA152-PA157 (chapter XI, \"Manumision, coartacion, patronato\"), PA159-PA164 (chapter XII, \"Instruccion de 30 de Mayo de 1789 - Comparacion con el Reglamento de esclavos\"). Note an inconsistency inside the volume itself: the chapter heading and its first sentence date the Real cedula to 30 May 1789, while PA163 and PA164 twice date it 31 May 1789." }, { "id": "informacion-reformas-cuba-puerto-rico-1867", "title": "Informacion sobre reformas en Cuba y Puerto Rico: Introduccion. 1.a pte. Preliminares. 2.a pte. Cuestion social. 3.a pte. Cuestion economica", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=L1BKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA70", "publisher": "Hallet y Breen, 1867; 426 pages", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The printed proceedings of the Junta de Informacion de Ultramar summoned by the Spanish government, containing the official interrogatorio put to the colonial commissioners and their answers, read as page scans on 2026-08-12 in the Google Books full-view copy. Registered as primary for the 1866-67 consultation itself - the questions and the signed answers are transcribed documents - and NOT for anything the volume's unsigned editorial introduction asserts, which is a partisan liberal essay (PR1-PR8) and is not cited here. Pages read: PA42 (the ten questions of the section headed NEGROS ESCLAVOS, with question 10 on coartacion), PA70 (the commissioners' agreed answer to question 10), PA78 (a second signed answer, on the Reglamento of 1842, the Real Cedula of 1789 and the Puerto Rico hours), PA225 (one commissioner's individual answers, including the free womb). The place of printing is not stated in the metadata read and is not asserted here." }, { "id": "villanueva-flores-garcia-atutxa-2025", "title": "From forgotten to frontier: vindicating Latin America's indigenous biotechnology", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12288233/", "publisher": "Francisca Villanueva-Flores and Igor Garcia-Atutxa, Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 2025; DOI 10.1186/s13002-025-00808-x. Open access through PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-12. A review that inventories Latin American indigenous food and materials technologies - nixtamalization, cassava and cacao fermentation, pulque, pozol, tocosh, chuno, cochineal, barbasco, terra preta - and dates the alkaline cooking of maize to about 1200-1500 BC in Guatemala, with the chemistry stated as liberation of niacin and tryptophan, increased calcium and reduced mycotoxins. Reliability is set below the other papers in this batch because the paper is declaredly advocative - the title word is \"vindicating\" - and its assertion that Spanish colonizers \"misunderstood or deliberately suppressed\" the processing knowledge is made without documentary citation for the deliberate half. The claim bound to that sentence carries a confidence of 0.55 and names the problem in its own text." }, { "id": "kamau-nkhata-ayua-2020", "title": "Extrusion and nixtamalization conditions influence the magnitude of change in the nutrients and bioactive components of cereals and legumes", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7174222/", "publisher": "Elijah Heka Kamau, Smith G Nkhata and Emmanuel Owino Ayua, Food Science & Nutrition, 2020; DOI 10.1002/fsn3.1473. Open access through PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-12. Food-science review supplying the quantitative side of nixtamalization: lime at 1-5%, overnight steeping, calcium up by 94% and reported up to 400%, aflatoxin down 80-100%, fumonisin retained at 18% with about 75% washed away, protein 8% to 9%. It also carries the useful disagreement with the popular account, reporting research that attributes the nutritional difference to amino-acid balance rather than to bound niacin. Technical rather than historical - it says nothing about the Atlantic transfer and is not cited for it." }, { "id": "feuz-meyer-ficca-meyer-2023", "title": "Beyond Pellagra - Research Models and Strategies Addressing the Enduring Clinical Relevance of NAD Deficiency in Aging and Disease", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9913999/", "publisher": "Morgan B Feuz, Mirella L Meyer-Ficca and Ralph G Meyer, Cells 12(3):500, 2023; DOI 10.3390/cells12030500. Open access through PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-12. A modern NAD-biology review whose historical paragraph is what is used here: that pellagra \"was first recognized as a clinical problem during the 18th Century in Spain and Italy, when epidemics of sun-induced skin lesions occurred among people working outdoors\", the later outbreaks in the southern United States, and the identification by Goldberger and Elvehjem of bioavailable niacin deficiency in corn-based diets. It does not name Gaspar Casal, does not date the first description to 1735, and does not discuss nixtamalization; three PubMed Central items that search suggested might carry the Casal material - PMC6451741, PMC10285791 and PMC9070259 - were opened and do not (the last two are page-scan reprints of 1846 and 1910 with no text layer), so no claim in this corpus asserts the Casal attribution." }, { "id": "dominguez-castro-2017-latam-met", "title": "Early meteorological records from Latin-America and the Caribbean during the 18th and 19th centuries", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5685157/", "publisher": "F. Dominguez-Castro et al., Scientific Data 4:170169, 2017; DOI 10.1038/sdata.2017.169, Nature Publishing Group. Open access through PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-12. A data-descriptor paper recovering over 300,000 early instrumental meteorological records from twenty countries, Lima 1754 to Havana 1905, naming Unanue at Lima and Caldas at Bogota among the early observers and the Lima series in \"El conocimiento de los Tiempos\" for 1754-1856. Its value for this corpus is that it states its own limits in the same voice as its results - sparse and discontinuous observations, heterogeneous instruments and scales, 83% of the data from four countries, most surviving paper never catalogued or digitised, 488 suspicious values of which 429 were rejected - and that it attributes the break in the series to the independence wars and the administrative reorganisation that followed." }, { "id": "trouet-2016-caribbean-shipwrecks", "title": "Shipwreck rates reveal Caribbean tropical cyclone response to past radiative forcing", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4812713/", "publisher": "Valerie Trouet, Grant L. Harley and Marta Dominguez-Delmas, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113(12):3169-3174, 2016; DOI 10.1073/pnas.1519566113. Open access through PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-12. Uses 656 Spanish Caribbean shipwreck events of 1495-1825 drawn from a compilation of about 4,000 entries, normalised against shipping volume tallied from the 643 registers of the Registros de Ida in the Archivo General de Indias (3,881 vessels, 1590-1780), to find a 75% reduction in decadal-scale Caribbean tropical cyclone activity during the Maunder Minimum of 1645-1715. The paper is explicit about the incompleteness of the wreck record - undocumented losses, documents lost to age, war or fire - about the trend introduced by rising ship numbers, and about its restriction to the July-November season or events of unknown seasonality." }, { "id": "burgdorf-2023-docuclim", "title": "DOCU-CLIM: A global documentary climate dataset for climate reconstructions", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10290071/", "publisher": "Angela-Maria Burgdorf, Stefan Bronnimann, George Adamson et al., Scientific Data 10:402, 2023; DOI 10.1038/s41597-023-02303-y, Nature Publishing Group. Open access through PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-12. The first global multi-variable collection of documentary climate records, 621 time series from diaries, chronicles and logbooks. Used here only for the coverage statement - most series are European, only a few come from South America, and some South American records begin as early as the sixteenth century - which is the evidence for the claim that the Spanish American documentary corpus is under-exploited rather than exhausted. It was checked for rogation-ceremony (rogativa) series and for Mexico and Peru specifically and discusses neither, so no claim here attributes those to it." }, { "id": "wang-2008-mestizo-admixture", "title": "Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2265669/", "publisher": "Sijia Wang et al., PLoS Genetics 4(3):e1000037, 2008; DOI 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000037. Open access through PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-12. 249 unrelated individuals from 13 Mestizo populations in 7 countries, typed at 678 autosomal and 29 X-chromosome microsatellites. Supplies the ancestry range (Native American about 70% in Salta to about 20% in Rio Grande do Sul, the Central Valley of Costa Rica and Medellin; African below 5% in most populations, near 10% in three), the correlation between pre-Columbian Native population density and present-day Native ancestry at rho 0.569 and P 0.04, the mean time since admixture of 6-14 generations, and the excess of African ancestry on the X chromosome relative to autosomes in every population examined at P below 0.001. A small sample by present standards and the correlation rests on 13 points, which is why the claims bound to it sit at 0.8-0.9 rather than higher." }, { "id": "ongaro-2021-sex-biased-admixture", "title": "Evaluating the Impact of Sex-Biased Genetic Admixture in the Americas through the Analysis of Haplotype Data", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8535939/", "publisher": "Linda Ongaro, Ludovica Molinaro, Rodrigo Flores et al., Genes 12(10):1580, 2021; DOI 10.3390/genes12101580, MDPI. Open access through PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-12. 5,242 individuals from 17 American populations across nine countries, analysed with three independent methods (ADMIXTURE, ELAI, NNLS). Gives the replication of the sex bias on the X chromosome - excess European ancestry on the autosomes, excess American ancestry on chrX in seven populations of Chile, Colombia and Mexico, excess African ancestry on chrX in four others - and restates the earlier uniparental result of more American and African mitochondrial DNA than Y-chromosome counterpart. The authors read the pattern demographically, through male-biased colonial migration and later gendered social practices; the corpus claim bound to that sentence says explicitly that a genome records descent and not consent, which is the corpus's own framing and not a finding of the paper." }, { "id": "chacon-duque-2018-converso-ancestry", "title": "Latin Americans show wide-spread Converso ancestry and imprint of local Native ancestry on physical appearance", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6300600/", "publisher": "Juan-Camilo Chacon-Duque et al., Nature Communications 9:5388, 2018; DOI 10.1038/s41467-018-07748-z. Open access through PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-12. Over 6,500 individuals from Brazil (676), Chile (1,891), Colombia (1,713), Mexico (1,288) and Peru (1,284) in the CANDELA cohort. Supplies the Sephardic and East/South Mediterranean component detected in every country sample (Brazil 1%, Chile 4%, Colombia 3%, Mexico 3%, Peru 2%), the finding that about 23% of individuals carry more than 5% of it at an average of 12.2% and that it is mostly Sephardic at 7.3%, and the association of the Mapuche component with nose shape. The cohort is urban and volunteer-recruited rather than a representative national sample, which the corpus records as a standing caution rather than leaving implicit." }, { "id": "caldas-semanario-nueva-granada-1849", "title": "Semanario de la Nueva Granada: miscelanea de ciencias, literatura, artes e industria, publicada por una sociedad de patriotas Granadinos, bajo la direccion de Francisco Jose de Caldas", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=K3bUuNIfcmgC&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Nueva edicion corregida, aumentada con varios opusculos ineditos de F. J. de Caldas, anotada y adornada con su retrato y con el cuadro original de la Geografia de las plantas del Baron de Humboldt; Paris, Libreria Castellana, 2 calle Saint-Germain-des-Pres, Lasserre editor, 1849. Full-view digitisation of the Harvard College Library copy (gift of John B. Stetson Jr.), Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-12. This is the Paris reprint of the weekly printed at Santa Fe de Bogota from 1808 under Francisco Jose de Caldas, not the colonial imprint: the reprint retitles the paper \"de la Nueva Granada\" where the original numbers and the index say \"del Nuevo Reino de Granada\", and its editor - signing \"J. A.\", Joaquin Acosta - is an interested party who prints the texts to reclaim a national hero, calls the men who executed Caldas barbarians, and tells the young men of 1849 that they now possess what Caldas lacked, including a government that protects the sciences. Reliability is set below the tier for that reason: it is a strong witness to what the Semanario printed and a partisan one about what the colonial regime was. Pages opened and read - the spine and binding leaves and the Harvard bookplate; the title page, Paris 1849; page X, the last leaf of the editor's advertencia, with the execution of Caldas on 30 October 1816 by the general Morillo, the thirty years since, and the address to the young men of New Granada; pages 1 and 2, the opening of \"Estado de la Geografia del Vireinato de Santa Fe de Bogota\" with Caldas's titles, the epigraph from Arriquibar, geography as the thermometer of a people, and the definition and bounds of Nueva Granada reckoned from the meridian of the royal observatory of Cadiz; page 156, the table of atmospheric pressure, height above the sea in Castilian varas and mean temperature for Santa Fe, Mesa, Tocaima, Neiva, Bolsa, Plata, Tunja and Pamplona, followed by Miguel de Pombo's notice of the persons vaccinated in the capital from 1 March 1805 to 29 May 1808 with its table totalling 1532 and its eulogy of Jenner; page 544, the close of the cochineal memoir in Linnaean Latin and the note on the suspension and resumption of the meteorological tables; page 545, the meteorological table for January 1810 and the head of the subscriber list with the viceroy Antonio Amar y Borbon; page 546, the end of that list at Cartagena and Veracruz and the opening of the memoir on a projected journey from Quito to northern America addressed to Mutis; and the index leaves 569, 570 and 572. The remaining pages were not read." }, { "id": "di-liscia-2026-viruela-rio-de-la-plata", "title": "Instruments and agents of control: smallpox in the Rio de la Plata at the beginning of the nineteenth century", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12928200/", "publisher": "Maria Silvia Di Liscia, Historia, Ciencias, Saude - Manguinhos 33(Suppl 1):e2026001, 2026; DOI 10.1590/S0104-59702026000100001en; open access under a Creative Commons Attribution licence, read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Full text read on 2026-08-12. Peer-reviewed history of the introduction and maintenance of smallpox vaccination in the Rio de la Plata: the arrival in early August 1805 with the Portuguese trader Antonio Machado Carvalho and the vaccine carried on inoculated enslaved men; the Royal Protomedicato under Miguel O'Gorman from 1798 to its dissolution in 1822; Saturnino Segurola charged with conserving the vaccine in 1807 and administering it at his house on Puan street; his 1813 regulation obliging neighbourhood mayors to register the vaccinated and the unvaccinated; distribution to frontier posts; the Casa de Ninos Expositos as a reservoir with infant mortality of 40 per cent between the ages of 0 and 2; 7,414 Guarani inoculated in the missions during the epidemics of 1732, 1733, 1738 and 1764; the abandonment of vaccination five years on for want of funds; and the author's explicit judgement that the use of enslaved people and orphans as reservoirs was a morally reprehensible situation regarding individual rights. The article is the source of every Rio de la Plata claim in this corpus that is not also in her 2022 study." }, { "id": "di-liscia-2022-smallpox-argentina", "title": "Smallpox and immunisation policies in Argentina from the nineteenth to the twentieth century", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10260326/", "publisher": "Maria Silvia Di Liscia, Medical History 66(4):323-338, 2022, Cambridge University Press; DOI 10.1017/mdh.2023.3; open access, read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Full text read on 2026-08-12. Covers the long arc after the colonial period and is used here for the 1805 arrival on the arms of already-vaccinated enslaved people, for the dates of compulsion - law 817 of 1876 for immigrants, law 1420 of 1880 for schoolchildren, the whole population of Buenos Aires in 1886 - and for the gap between distribution and coverage, 2,106,070 plates distributed between 1875 and 1901 against 323,000 people registered as vaccinated by public institutions. Same author as di-liscia-2026-viruela-rio-de-la-plata, which is why the object built on both records that one historian's reading carries most of its Rio de la Plata material." }, { "id": "reglamento-comercio-libre-1778-marin", "title": "Reglamento y aranceles reales para el comercio libre de España a Indias de 12. de Octubre de 1778", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=12JSAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Madrid, En la Imprenta de Pedro Marin, 1778. Bayerische Staatsbibliothek copy (the title leaf carries the Bibliotheca Regia Monacensis stamp), digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The Madrid printing of the cedula of 12 October 1778, read as page scans at 1600 pixels wide on 2026-08-12. Pages opened and read - PP5, the engraved arms and the imprint of Pedro Marin; PP7, the title page; PP8, the blank verso; PA1 to PA4, the opening of the sumario of the matters contained in the reglamento, which lists the articles by number with the page of each (article 1 at page 4, article 4 at page 7, article 5 at page 8, article 6 at page 10, article 7 at page 11, article 13 at page 17); and, in the separately paginated body of the cedula, printed pages 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10 and 11 (page ids RA1-PA1 to RA1-PA7, RA1-PA8 and RA1-PA9). What was read and is cited - the marginal heading Motivos de esta concesion and the sentence on a free and protected commerce between European and American Spaniards restoring agriculture, industry and population; the decree and instruction of 16 October 1765 opening peninsular ports to the Islas de Barlovento; the royal decree of 2 February 1778 extending the concession to Buenos Aires, Chile and Peru; the inclusion now of Santa Fe and Guatemala; article 1 reserving every hull to the king's vassals with no foreign participation; the premium of a third of the duties on a first voyage for the builder of a merchantman of three hundred tons or more; article 3 on officers and two thirds of the crew being Spaniards or naturalised and the remaining third foreign Catholics; article 4 and its list of the eleven peninsular ports with Palma and Santa Cruz de Tenerife; and article 6, headed Derechos abolidos, abolishing palmeo, toneladas, San Telmo, extrangeria, visitas, reconocimientos de carenas, habilitaciones and licencias, revoking the project of 1720, reserving a separate regulation for the commerce of New Spain, and permitting the annual mercury registers to carry goods to Vera-Cruz from 1779. IMPORTANT CAVEAT ON THIS SCAN - it is missing a leaf. The page images run continuously from printed page 7 to printed page 10, so printed pages 8 and 9, which carry the end of article 4 and the whole of article 5 with the list of American ports, are absent from this digitisation even though every page id from RA1-PA1 to RA1-PA262 is present in the volume map. The claims resting on those two pages are bound instead to reglamento-comercio-libre-1778-marin-copy-b, a second digitised copy of the same printing in which they were opened and read." }, { "id": "reglamento-comercio-libre-1778-marin-copy-b", "title": "Reglamento y aranceles reales para el comercio libre de España a Indias de 12 de octubre de 1778 - second digitised copy", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=nDmSIdnUVcUC&pg=RA1-PA8", "publisher": "Madrid, En la Imprenta de Pedro Marin, 1778. Second full-view digitisation of the same printing, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "A second copy of the identical 1778 Madrid printing, registered separately because the first copy's scan lacks printed pages 8 and 9 and this one does not. Read as page scans at 1600 pixels wide on 2026-08-12. Pages opened and read - printed page 8, the close of article 4 restricting the natives of Mallorca and the Canaries to the produce and manufactures of their own islands with an absolute prohibition on carrying foreign goods, and the opening of article 5 under the marginal heading Puertos senalados en America; printed page 9, the remainder of the American port list from Margarita and Trinidad through Campeche, the Gulf of Santo Tomas de Castilla, Omoa, Cartagena, Santa Marta, Rio de la Hacha, Portovelo and Chagre to Montevideo, Buenos Aires, Valparaiso, la Concepcion, Arica, Callao and Guayaquil, together with the parenthesis excepting Venezuela, Cumana, Guayana and Maracaybo as conceded to the Compania de Caracas without exclusive privilege; printed page 261, the closing address to the judges, royal officials, customs administrators, the Diputacion General del Reyno, the Sociedades Economicas, the Consulados de Comercio and all vassals of these dominions, the Indies and the Philippines; and printed page 262, the prohibition on reprinting the cedula without express permission of the Ministerio Universal de Indias, the date at San Lorenzo el Real of 12 October 1778, the subscription YO EL REY and Don Josef de Galvez, and the certification Es copia de la original. Two searches of the volume's own search layer, for Esclavos and for Indio, returned no hits; that is recorded as a property of the search index and not as evidence that the reglamento is silent on either subject, since the same layer returned no hits for extrangeros, a word the printed text certainly contains." }, { "id": "memoria-comision-cientifica-pachuca-1865", "title": "Memoria de los trabajos ejecutados por la Comision Cientifica de Pachuca en el año de 1864", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZfVAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA168", "publisher": "Directed by the engineer Ramon Almaraz; ordered into print by the Ministerio de Fomento; Mexico, Imprenta de J. M. Andrade y F. Escalante, Bajos de San Agustin numero 1, 1865. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The published memoir of a Mexican government scientific commission, read as page scans at 1600 pixels wide on 2026-08-12. Reliability is set well below the tier for two reasons the volume supplies itself. First, it is a primary witness only to what the commission saw in 1864 - for the sixteenth century it quotes other books, and says so. Second, its title page states that it was ordered into print by the Ministerio de Fomento of S. M. I., that is by the imperial government of Maximilian then sitting in Mexico, and its account of the Franciscan missionaries is written in the register of national commemoration rather than of investigation. Pages opened and read - PA3, the title page with the direction of Ramon Almaraz, the imprint of Andrade y Escalante of 1865, and the statement that the memoir continues that of the Valley of Mexico; printed page 167, the municipality of Zempoala, its pulque economy and the sentence that nothing can be said of the town's foundation or history for want of authentic documents; printed page 168, the passage on the Arqueria o Arcos de Zempoala reprinting the article of the Diccionario Universal de Historia, Geografia y Estadistica on fray Francisco Tembleque at Otumba, the springs fifteen leagues away, the want of money, the co-operation of the indigenous people, the friar as architect, overseer, master and labourer, the seventeen years of work, the aqueduct of lime and stone three varas thick, the measurements quoted from Alaman's Disertaciones (three bridges of forty-six, thirteen and sixty-seven arches, the third extending one thousand and fifty-nine varas and a third with a central arch of one hundred and twenty-eight feet in height and seventy feet in width), the abandonment of the work, the earthquakes and the spoliation by neighbours, and the beginning of the quotation from Villasenor's Teatro mexicano; and printed page 169, the end of the Villasenor quotation on the deep ravine, the height of the piers and the noble mixture of the fabric, followed by the divergent figure from the statistical notice of the Department of Mexico in the Anales del Ministerio de Fomento, which gives the largest arch forty-seven and a half varas, a little over one hundred and forty-two feet, against Alaman's one hundred and twenty-eight. Note on page ids in this volume - the printed page number equals the RA1-PA number throughout the section read." }, { "id": "lopez-de-velasco-descripcion-1894", "title": "Geografia y descripcion universal de las Indias, recopilada por el cosmografo-cronista Juan Lopez de Velasco desde el ano de 1571 al de 1574 - the text of the Descripcion", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=B9L7BaUE6XcC", "publisher": "Establecimiento tipografico de Fortanet, impresor de la Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid, 1894. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id B9L7BaUE6XcC)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "First book printing of a manuscript compiled 1571-1574 for the Council of the Indies, read as page scans on 2026-08-12. Primary because this is the first printing of the text and the pages were opened; reliability 0.8 rather than higher because it is a nineteenth-century transcription of a working draft, not the draft, and because the editor of this same volume lists geographical errors in it which he deliberately did not correct. Pages opened and read - PR3, the title page and imprint; PA1, the head-title Descripcion universal de las Indias y demarcacion de los reyes de Castilla, the definition of the Indies as a hemisphere of 180 degrees counted from 39 or 40 degrees west of Toledo, the 3,150 leagues of demarcation and the editor's footnote that the table indicated goes at the end of the book in the original; PA2, the Suma del estado temporal y espiritual de las Indias for 1574 - 200 Spanish towns, close to 32,000 Spanish households, 3,900 to 4,000 encomenderos, 8,000 to 9,000 Indian settlements, a million and a half tributaries with the exclusions named, some 3,700 repartimientos, about 40,000 black slaves, and the count of audiencias, governorships, treasuries, mints, archbishoprics, bishoprics and monasteries by order; PA3, the completion of that count with eight convents of nuns and two districts of the Inquisition, and the chapter De la primera poblacion de las Indias rejecting Plato, Carthage, Ophir and the ten tribes and arguing for a northern land connection; PA10, the preference for lunar-eclipse observation in fixing longitude, the 91 degrees of the padron of Seville, Joanoto Duran's two eclipses of 1544 and the resulting six hours fifty-two minutes and 103 degrees, and the 5 degrees the correction moves the demarcation line in Castile's favour; PA43, the chapter De los mestizos, negros, mulatos y zambaigos and the licence duty on the slave trade. A SearchWithinVolume pass also returned tributary counts by bishopric at PA91, PA97, PA139, PA187, PA207, PA228, PA240, PA241 and PA267, which this object does not cite. Page opened and read 2026-08-16: PA99, the close of the chapter on the island of Hispaniola - gold no longer worked \"por haberse acabado los indios y ser la gente pobre\", the thirty mills \"entre trapiches, que muelen con caballos o bueyes, e ingenios de agua\", the trades of sugar and cattle hides, the more than twelve thousand enslaved black people in the mills and estancias, and the reported million Indians at the discovery of whom two villages of up to fifty remained." }, { "id": "zaragoza-nota-preliminar-1894", "title": "Justo Zaragoza, Nota preliminar to Geografia y descripcion universal de las Indias (Madrid, 1894)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=B9L7BaUE6XcC", "publisher": "Establecimiento tipografico de Fortanet, Madrid, 1894. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id B9L7BaUE6XcC)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The editor's own prose in the same volume, registered separately from the text it introduces because it is nineteenth-century commentary rather than the sixteenth-century document. Reliable on what he did and handled, and interested where he is defending the value of the manuscript he is printing; the claims resting on his judgements carry 0.8 to 0.85 for that reason. Pages opened and read - PR5, the start of the Nota preliminar, the publication in the Boletin de la Sociedad Geografica de Madrid begun in May 1880 three hundred years after Juan Bautista Gessio censured a derivative Sumario, the acquisition of the manuscript by Cardinal Lorenzana, the shelfmark S. R. Est. 11, caj. 4 of the provincial library of Toledo, and the statement that the manuscript is the draft of the Libro de la descripcion de las Indias commissioned by Juan de Ovando; PR9, Ovando's note on the emendations made in the Council, Lopez de Velasco's petition to Philip II endorsed 27 November 1576, and the royal disposition of 11 January 1577 granting the cosmographer-chronicler 400 ducados, cited from Jimenez de la Espada; PR11, the judgement that the printed Descripcion repeats the order, phrases and errors of the Sumario Gessio had censured, the editor's own list of those errors, his statement that he corrected none of them and left Piru and Guatimala standing, and the two additions he did make. PR13 was fetched and is not cited." }, { "id": "gilberti-arte-tarasca-leon-1898", "title": "Maturino Gilberti, Arte de la lengua tarasca o de Michoacan (Mexico, 1558), reprinted by Nicolas Leon, Mexico, 1898", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=nFQTAAAAYAAJ", "publisher": "Tipografia de la Oficina Impresora del Timbre, Palacio Nacional, Mexico, 1898. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id nFQTAAAAYAAJ)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-12. Tiered secondary rather than primary on the editor's own statement of method - he abandoned a facsimile reimpression, had only the title page and first three leaves traced in lithography, and reset the rest in new type while preserving the division of page and line, the errata and the mistaken pagination - which is the same reasoning that tiers the 1983 Lagunas reproduction secondary in this corpus. Reliability 0.8 because that method is stated openly and is unusually strict for its date. Pages opened and read - PR3, the 1898 title page; PR5, the referral to Garcia Icazbalceta's Bibliografia Mexicana del siglo XVI and to the editor's own biography of Gilberti in the Anales del Museo Michoacano year II; PR6, the single incomplete copy that belonged to Jose Fernando Ramirez and was sold in London, the twenty-year search, the copy obtained from Fr. Salvador de los Dolores Arguello of Santa Cruz de Queretaro, and the account of how faithful the reprint is; PA1, the traced 1558 title page with the Juan Pablos imprint; PA7, the printing licence of viceroy Luis de Velasco dated Mexico 12 August 1558, countersigned by Antonio de Turcios, binding the printer to agree with the author on the printing time and the sale price; PA13, the Aviso primero on the danger of writing the language with any letters at will and the Regla primera with the tza and cedilla-c minimal pairs; PA18, the notes on accent falling on middle syllables and the Aviso quarto on syllables the language lacks and the reshaping of Spanish loanwords; PA327, printed as folio 167, the travel dialogue and the section headed Para mandar en casa. PP4 was fetched and is blank. A SearchWithinVolume pass returned no hits for Inquisicion or Dialogo, so nothing is asserted here about the proceedings against Gilberti's other books." }, { "id": "lugo-gramatica-mosca-1619", "title": "Fray Bernardo de Lugo, Gramatica en la lengua general del Nuevo Reyno, llamada mosca (Madrid, 1619)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=wbJkAAAAMAAJ", "publisher": "En Madrid, por Barnardino de Guzman, 1619. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id wbJkAAAAMAAJ)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The only grammar of Muisca ever printed, read as page scans on 2026-08-12. Primary because the scan is of a copy of the 1619 Madrid printing itself - the title page carries manuscript ownership notes and a library shelfmark, the sheets show seventeenth-century type and show-through, and a SearchWithinVolume pass for \"Platzmann\", \"Leipzig\" and \"facsimile\" returns no results, so nothing in the volume presents it as a reprint. Reliability 0.85 rather than higher for two stated reasons - the editor of the 1871 Chibcha corpus records that two printings of this grammar were made which differ considerably from each other, and this run could not determine which of the two it opened; and the same editor judges the printing too full of typographic errors to be a secure text, which is registered as a claim in the object rather than hidden here. Pages opened and read - PP1, the modern binding with the title and imprint stamped on it; PP5, the title page, the author's style as Predicador General of the Order of Preachers and catedratico of the language in the Convento del Rosario of Santa Fe, the Dominican arms, \"Ano 1619.\" and \"En Madrid, por Barnardino de Guzman\"; PP7, the sonnet spoken by the language itself, \"La lengua Chibcha soy\", with the lines on Lugo presiding in its schools and on its having been made ladina from chontal; PA2, the address to the reader, the arrangement on the model of the Latin arts, the circumflex as the mark of the long accent, and the answer to the objector, \"Toque con las manos, y experimente\"; PA3-IA1, the statement that the Indians lack D and L in their pronunciation, that Castilian Z is to be sounded as S, and the introduction of the inverted ypsilon as a character not in the Spanish alphabet, with the example hychaguy and the articulatory description - teeth open, lips not closed, tongue not touching the palate; PA153, the confession manual in Muisca, the seventh commandment with its two questions on theft, and the Spanish rubric that one question suffices \"para la India chontal\" because she cannot tell which man is ordained." }, { "id": "uricoechea-1871-gramatica-chibcha", "title": "Ezequiel Uricoechea, prologue to Gramatica, vocabulario, catecismo i confesionario de la lengua chibcha (Paris, 1871)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=iOE2kaPEHQsC", "publisher": "Coleccion linguistica americana, tomo I, Paris, 1871. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id iOE2kaPEHQsC)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The editor's own prose in the volume that reprints Lugo's grammar together with the manuscript Chibcha dictionaries, registered separately from the texts it introduces so that the sixteenth and seventeenth-century material cannot borrow its tier or its errors. Secondary, and reliability 0.8 - Uricoechea is a trained philologist working from the manuscripts and openly critical of the text he is publishing, which is what makes him useful here, but he is also a nineteenth-century liberal writing on the religious orders and one claim bound to him (the Jesuit rivalry with the Dominican school) is his assertion and is carried at confidence 0.6 for that reason. Pages opened and read - PR43, Lugo as \"natural de Bogota\" with his biography unknown, his long years teaching in the Dominican Universidad Pontificia at Bogota, the grammar and dictionary written only \"bajo precepto de santa obediencia a un mandato del superior\", the statement that this grammar \"anda impresa i es la unica que existe\" and that two printings were made which differ considerably, the dependence of all surviving dictionaries on Lugo's, the copyists described as \"jente inhabil, i poco o nada versada en la lengua espanola i casi ignorante de la chibcha\", and the passage on the Jesuits' wish to destroy the Dominican school; PR45, the editorial aim of preserving the historical knowledge of the conquerors' culture and publishing a philological text, the judgement that \"aunque defectuosos estimo en mas su valor historico i su autoridad filolojica\", the verdict that Lugo's printed grammar \"esta tan sumamente llena de errores tipograficos que en realidad no se puede tomar por texto seguro\", and the argument that the four conjugations of Lugo's Arte are an artefact of the Latin canon where Chibcha has two, with the paradigm bquyscua, bquy, bquy za, bquy ua." }, { "id": "colmenero-tratado-chocolate-1631", "title": "Antonio Colmenero de Ledesma, Curioso tratado de la naturaleza y calidad del chocolate (Madrid, 1631)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=1vhmAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "En Madrid, por Francisco Martinez, 1631. Full-view digitisation of a British Museum copy, Google Books (volume id 1vhmAAAAcAAJ)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The first printed monograph on chocolate, read as page scans on 2026-08-12. Primary - the scan is of the 1631 Madrid printing by Francisco Martinez, carrying the British Museum stamp and shelfmark, and its collation matches the entry in Sabin (4to, two unnumbered and eleven numbered leaves). Reliability 0.9 for what the book says of itself and of American practice; its physiology is humoral and is cited here as the author's argument, never as fact. Pages opened and read - PP9, the title page with the four puntos, the author styled Medico y Cirujano of Ecija, and the imprint; PA4, the argument against the adversary from a dicto secundum quid ad dictum simpliciter, the note that eating cacao whole as fruit \"como lo hazen las Criollas en Indias\" obstructs because chewing does not mix its substances, the shade trees planted first so that the grown trees serve the cacao as a pavilion, and the pod holding ten or twelve beans; PA6, achiote's incising and attenuating quality established \"de la comun pratica que tienen los Medicos en las Indias, experimentados de sus efectos\", the four kinds of chile - Chilchotes, Chilcecpin, Tonalchiles grown only in the pueblos of the lagoon of Mexico, and Chilpatlagua as the ones used in chocolate - and Mecasuchil and Vinacaxtli, the orejuelas, with the purgative syrup made of the first in the Indies; PA8, the opening of the third punto and the full recipe, a hundred cacaos to two chilpatlagua chiles with Spanish sweet peppers named as the substitute, a fistful of anise, orejuelas, mecasuchil or in Spain six powdered Alexandria roses, one Campeche vanilla, two adarmes of cinnamon, a dozen each of almonds and hazelnuts, half a pound of sugar, achiote enough to colour it, and the closing instruction that if some things of the Indies cannot be found it is to be made with the rest.\nPages added 2026-08-16: PA4-IA1, the two kinds of cacao, the liver-of-mutton experiment comparing black pepper with chile, and the recipe of \"nuestro Escritor de Marchena\" - cacao 700, white sugar a pound and a half, cinnamon two ounces, \"chile, ò pimientos num. 14\", cloves half an ounce, \"vainillas de campeche tres, ò por ellas anis peso de dos reales\", and achiote the bulk of a hazelnut; PA5, the verdict that \"Las vainillas de Campeche son mui lindas, y tienen vn olor casi de hinojo, y todos las echan por no ser mui calientes\", with the argument that the anise is not excused by them.\nPage re-opened and read 2026-08-16: PA6, the achiote paragraph in full - \"El Achiote tiene calidad incindente y atenuante, como consta de la comun pratica que tienen los Medicos en las Indias, experimentados de sus efectos, pues lo conceden para incindir y atenuar los humores gruessos que causan el asma, y la detencion de la orina: y assi de la propia suerte puede aprouechar para qualquiera genero de opilaciones\" - followed on the same page by the four kinds of chile (Chilchotes, Chilteepin, Tonalchiles, Chilpatlagua, the last \"los vsuales, i que se echan en el Chocolate\") and by the Mecasuchil and Vinacaxtli or orejuelas." }, { "id": "sabin-bibliotheca-americana-iv", "title": "Joseph Sabin, A Dictionary of Books relating to America (Bibliotheca Americana), volume IV - the Colmenero de Ledesma entries", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=C8BBYONG2fQC", "publisher": "New York, 1871 (Google Books metadata date). Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id C8BBYONG2fQC)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The standard nineteenth-century bibliography of Americana, used here only for the printing history of Colmenero's treatise. Reliability 0.8, and lowered from what a bibliography of this standing would otherwise carry for one reason recorded in the object as its own claim - Sabin gives the English translator as \"Capt. James Woodworth\" where the usual modern form is Wadsworth. The title page of this volume was not opened; the volume is identified from the running heads and pagination of the pages read (COLMENERO and COLOMBEL, pages 265 and 266), the \"VOL. IV.\" in the page footer, and the Google Books catalogue record. Pages opened and read - PA265, the entry \"COLMENERO DE LEDESMA (Antonio). Cvrioso tratado de la natvraleza y calidad del Chocolate ... Madrid: Francisco Martinez. 1631. 4to, 2 unnumbered, 11 numbered l.\", the quotation from Rich no. 197 on what the work treats, the Latin \"Chocolata Inda opusculum de qualitate et natura chocolatae ... curante Mario Aurelio Severino. Norimbergae. 1644\", and the French \"Traduit en Francais par Rene Moreau. Paris. 1643\"; PA266, \"COLMENERO. Treatise on chocolate. Translated by Capt. James Woodworth. London. 1652. 12mo.\"" }, { "id": "lippi-2013-chocolate-in-history", "title": "Chocolate in History: Food, Medicine, Medi-Food", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3708337/", "publisher": "Nutrients 5(5):1573-1584, MDPI", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Donatella Lippi, 2013, DOI 10.3390/nu5051573, open access; full text read on 2026-08-12 in the PMC deposit. A medical historian's narrative review rather than a primary study, which is why reliability is 0.8 and the claims bound to it are carried at 0.75-0.8. Used for four things - Colmenero's disagreement with Marradon and his argument that chocolate was a beneficial health drink; the four questions his book is organised round; the statement that Spanish consumers were gradually changing the flavour of the import by adding sugar and spices more congenial to their palate than the more bitter taste favoured by the natives; the medicinal uses recorded in the Badianus manuscript of 1552 and the three headings under which European physicians later placed them; and Cardinal Brancaccio's 1662 declaration that liquidum non frangit jejunum. The article says nothing at all about cacao plantation labour, and no claim about labour is drawn from it." }, { "id": "lanaud-2024-cacao-archaeogenomics", "title": "A revisited history of cacao domestication in pre-Columbian times revealed by archaeogenomic approaches", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10920634/", "publisher": "Scientific Reports 14:2972, Nature Portfolio", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Lanaud, Vignes, Utge, Valette, Rhone, Garcia Caputi, Angarita Nieto, Fouet, Gaikwad, Zarrillo, Powis, Cyphers, Valdez and others, 2024, DOI 10.1038/s41598-024-53010-6, CC BY 4.0; full text read on 2026-08-12 in the PMC deposit. Peer-reviewed primary research reported at secondary tier here because this corpus registers a published study read online as secondary. Figures verified on reading - 352 archaeological items and 378 ceramic residues from 19 pre-Columbian cultures across South and Central America spanning about 5,000 years; methylxanthine analysis on 326 items and ancient DNA analysis on 157; Theobroma cacao ancient DNA in 73 of 118 South American ceramic samples; theobromine in 116 of 311 South American samples and caffeine in 123; domestication in the southern Ecuadorian Amazon from at least 5,300 years ago; and dispersal by human networks to the Pacific coast of Ecuador (Valdivia) and to the Colombian Caribbean sites of Puerto Hormiga and San Jacinto more than 5,000 years ago." }, { "id": "ward-2024-criollo-cattle-genomics", "title": "Genomic insights into the population history and adaptive traits of Latin American Criollo cattle", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10990470/", "publisher": "Royal Society Open Science 11(3):231388 (2024), The Royal Society. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Peer-reviewed population genomics. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-12, body and discussion present. 97 animals with whole-genome sequence plus 261 genotyped on the BovineHD 777k array; 302,012 shared SNPs after filtering. Quoted verbatim in the claims - cattle \"sourced from La Gomera in the Canary Islands were brought to the island of Hispaniola\" on the second voyage of 1493; \"by 1600, cattle ranching had become a significant industry\" in the Llanos of Colombia and Venezuela; \"the Guadeloupe breed, indigenous to the Caribbean, traces almost 35% of its genetic ancestry back to African taurine cattle\"; the PRLR \"slick\" phenotype listed for Blanco Orejinegro, Harton del Valle, Limonero, Romosinuano, Costeno con Cuernos and Mexican Criollo Lechero Tropical; and \"Criollo cattle are undervalued in modern production systems and face gradual replacement by more productive commercial breeds\". The historical statements rest on the paper's own citations (Rouse 1977, Armenteros Martinez 2018, Rodero 1992), which could not be opened from this container - hence confidence below 0.9 on the dating claims." }, { "id": "spetter-2025-raramuri-criollo-genomics", "title": "Genetic Diversity, Admixture, and Selection Signatures in a Raramuri Criollo Cattle Population Introduced to the Southwestern United States", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12112442/", "publisher": "International Journal of Molecular Sciences 26(10):4649 (2025), MDPI. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Peer-reviewed genomics of the Raramuri Criollo herd. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-12. 152 animals genotyped (118 Jornada Experimental Range, 34 Dugout Ranch). Verbatim passages used - \"three RC bulls and 30 heifers were introduced to the USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range (JER) in southwestern New Mexico, USA, in 2005\"; \"The RC developed for approximately 500 years with minimal human management, largely shaped by natural selection in the isolated areas of the Sierra Tarahumara\"; \"Ne declined markedly, reaching a value of 33 for the most recent generation. This value is below the recommended level between 50 and 100 for maintaining genetic diversity\"; FROH \"ranged from 0.033 to 0.409, with a mean of 0.115\"; \"the RCJER herd exhibited a predominant ancestral contribution from Iberian breeds, with minor influences from commercial, Indicine and African cattle\"; \"42 SNPs spanning seven chromosomes (1, 2, 6, 7, 13, 18, and 22)\"; and the Tarahumara \"also known as Raramuri or 'Barefoot' long-distance travelers\". Note the sampled population is the US herd descended from a 33-animal introduction, not the Sierra Tarahumara source population - the paper's diversity figures describe the former." }, { "id": "revidatti-2021-criollo-pigs", "title": "On the origins of American Criollo pigs: A common genetic background with a lasting Iberian signature", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8136715/", "publisher": "PLoS ONE 16(5):e0251879 (2021), Public Library of Science. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Peer-reviewed microsatellite study, the largest sampling of Criollo pig populations to date. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-12. 24 microsatellite markers, 46 populations/breeds, 1,715 pigs, of which 17 American Criollo breeds. Verbatim passages used - \"The first domestic swine arriving in the American continent came from the Canary Islands, in the second voyage of Columbus in 1493\"; \"The smallest distance was found between the CRI and IBE groups (O = 0.021)...The CRI then had distances of about 0.04 with the COM group and about 0.06 with the LBR and WBO\"; \"the Iberian influence on Criollos has been mostly through the Celtic group of breeds, which includes BIS and CEL (from the northern Iberian Peninsula), rather than from breeds of the Mediterranean group (from the south)\"; and on the supposed Chinese introduction, \"no evidence of this event was revealed in our study\". Criollo group heterozygosity He 0.702, Ho 0.566." }, { "id": "ocampo-2024-colombian-creole-pigs", "title": "Genome-wide diversity, linkage disequilibrium, and admixture in the main Colombian Creole pig breeds", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11464582/", "publisher": "Tropical Animal Health and Production 56:301 (2024), Springer Nature. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Peer-reviewed SNP-array study of the four recognised Colombian Creole pig breeds. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-12. Sample sizes San Pedreno 11, Zungo 11, Casco de Mula 10, Criollo Chocoano 7. Effective population sizes Criollo Chocoano 10, Casco de Mula 16, San Pedreno 16, Zungo 19. Census reported as fewer than 138 purebred animals for each official breed, San Pedreno at 99. Confirms a significant relationship with the Iberian pig and finds Landrace introgression in San Pedreno by Treemix. Small per-breed sample sizes are why claims bound to this source carry confidence at or below 0.8." }, { "id": "rivero-2021-gps-tracking-review", "title": "Factors Affecting Site Use Preference of Grazing Cattle Studied from 2000 to 2020 through GPS Tracking: A Review", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8069350/", "publisher": "Sensors 21(8):2696 (2021), MDPI. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Peer-reviewed review of two decades of GPS-collar studies of grazing cattle. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-12. Section 5.1 compares Raramuri Criollo with Angus x Hereford verbatim - \"Raramuri Criollo cows (heritage breed) displays a larger home range size than those of Angus x Hereford throughout seasons with low herbage mass, but the home range sizes and spatial coverage of the herds converge during more productive seasons. Additionally, Angus x Hereford have two-fold hotspots of use (locations with several visits of long duration), whereas Raramuri Criollo more strongly show the capacity to use nutritious forbs on open terrains despite summer heat, displaying a higher mobility per day and wider spatial dispersion throughout dry seasons. On the other hand, when herbage mass is high and more evenly distributed through the landscape, animal foraging patterns are similar for Mexican Criollo (heritage breed) and Angus cows.\" A review reporting the primary trials at second hand; the underlying Rangeland Ecology and Management papers are on a host blocked from this container, so the claim is bound to the review and carries 0.8." }, { "id": "mcintosh-2020-raramuri-phenotype", "title": "PSVII-1 A preliminary phenotypic characterization of Raramuri Criollo cattle", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7703111/", "publisher": "Journal of Animal Science 98(Suppl 4):307 (2020), Oxford University Press / American Society of Animal Science. Read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "A conference meeting abstract, not a full paper - registered and tiered accordingly, and every claim bound to it carries confidence at or below 0.7. Read on 2026-08-12. Reports 26 phenotypic traits scored on the Jornada herd - convex nose bridges 89%, open-back horns 49%, black muzzles 62%, black hooves 69%, black eyes 81%, small ears 78%, oblique eyes 70%, high-set tail heads 86%, short hooves 95%, short hair 78%; multiparous cows 366.8 +/- 9.8 kg live body weight and 121.8 +/- 0.9 cm at the withers, bulls 618.2 +/- 9.8 kg. No comparison with commercial breeds and no quantitative adaptation data." }, { "id": "campa-madrid-2025-raramuri-virtual-fencing", "title": "Training Raramuri Criollo Cattle to Virtual Fencing in a Chaparral Rangeland", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12345423/", "publisher": "Animals 15(15):2178 (2025), MDPI. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Peer-reviewed case study of virtual-fence training on the Corta Madera Ranch herd. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-12. Used only for its statement of the breed's working characteristics - \"wider grazing distributions, greater mobility, and reduced dependency on riparian areas compared to traditional British breeds such as Angus\", a \"calm disposition, small frame, and heat tolerance\", and the rangeland-management rationale that these traits reduce pressure on fragile semi-arid rangelands in the south-western United States. The paper does not discuss Spanish colonial origins or the Sierra Tarahumara, so nothing historical is bound to it." }, { "id": "hamilton-2021-columbian-exchange-forests", "title": "Non-uniform tropical forest responses to the 'Columbian Exchange' in the Neotropics and Asia-Pacific", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8324576/", "publisher": "Nature Ecology & Evolution 5:1174-1184 (2021), Springer Nature. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Peer-reviewed synthesis of 28 palaeoecological records spanning 1500-1700. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-12 (the displayed body is truncated near the end). Used for the ecological counterweight - 11 of the 28 records show a degree of afforestation between 1500 and 1600 CE; Hispaniola sites show dramatic landscape opening in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries following intensive monocultural cropping; sites proximal to mining centres in the Andes and Veracruz indicate intensified landscape disturbance after Iberian arrival; and on Pohnpei the simultaneous introduction of pigs by the Spanish may have prevented expected afforestation despite population decline. The paper's own emphasis is that responses were non-uniform, which is why the counterpoint claims are worded regionally and carry confidence at or below 0.8." }, { "id": "santillan-memoria-bancos-1865", "title": "Memoria histórica sobre los bancos Nacional de San Cárlos, Español de San Fernando, Isabel II, Nuevo de San Fernando, y de España", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=h-jX6aAWizgC", "publisher": "Establecimiento tipográfico de T. Fortanet, Madrid", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Documented institutional history of the Spanish national banks by Ramón Santillán (1791-1863), former minister of finance and first governor of the Banco de España, published posthumously in 1865; 634 pages, full view. Read as page scans on 2026-08-14: pp. 5-7 (the three objects of the Real cédula of 2 June 1782, the twenty-year provisioning pledge covering the troops \"de España é Indias\", Floridablanca's exposición of 10 October 1788 on the vales reales and their 22 per cent discount, and his account of the paper's recovery to a premium), p. 15 (the direction's request to hold back specie export until \"los caudales que se esperaban de América\" arrived, and the silver-export business begun before the privilege was granted), p. 22 (Mirabeau's pamphlet, \"nuevo Law\", and the Spanish request that France ban its circulation), p. 31 (the 1790 separation and residencia of the directors; the footnote that the early prosperity rested on share dealing and silver export; Ferrer del Río on Cabarrús's standing in 1782), p. 32 (silver-export profit fallen to 2.917.919 rs. 27 mrs.), p. 143 (the transaction of 9 July 1829 and the 40 million reales that formed the capital of the Banco Español de San Fernando). Registered secondary and not primary: it quotes articles 2-4 and 29 of the founding cédula rather than reproducing it, and its author is an interested party — his thesis is that the Banco de San Carlos was badly constituted and its successors better." }, { "id": "sansone-2023-nicotine-history", "title": "Nicotine: From Discovery to Biological Effects", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10572882/", "publisher": "Luigi Sansone, Francesca Milani, Riccardo Fabrizi, Manuel Belli, Mario Cristina, Vincenzo Zagà, Antonio de Iure, Luca Cicconi, Stefano Bonassi and Patrizia Russo, International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24(19):14570, MDPI, 2023, open access", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Peer-reviewed open-access review of nicotine's history, pharmacology and biological effects, read in full text on 2026-08-15. Cited here only for two things: the diffusion of Monardes's book in Europe and the present-day burden figures. Its historical timeline table states that in 1571 \"Nicolas Monardes, a physician in Seville, wrote a book on the history of medicinal plants of the new world, De Hierba Panacea, which stated that tobacco could cure 36 different ills. It became a standard medical textbook across Europe\"; that Jean Nicot de Villemain, French ambassador to Portugal, introduced tobacco to Catherine de Medici and sent snuff for her son Francis II's migraines; and that Adam Lonicer named the genus Nicotiana in his honour in 1565. Its 2023 row states that \"Tobacco is responsible for the deaths of up to half of its users. Annually, tobacco claims the lives of over 8 million individuals, which includes 1.3 million non-smokers exposed to second-hand smoke\", and that approximately 80 per cent of the world's 1.3 billion tobacco consumers live in low- and middle-income countries. Reliability is set at 0.7 rather than higher because the historical section of this review is the weak part of it: it gives Monardes's book a title and a date that do not match the Seville imprint registered in this corpus, repeats the disputed nicotine-in-mummies literature before discounting it, and contains at least one plain error of historical geography (\"The Mayans, who inhabited the Mississippi Valley region\"). The pharmacological and epidemiological material, which is what the burden figures come from, is the part the journal's reviewers were competent for." }, { "id": "gebhardt-2016-solanaceae-genetic-research", "title": "The historical role of species from the Solanaceae plant family in genetic research", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5121179/", "publisher": "Christiane Gebhardt, Theoretical and Applied Genetics 129(12):2281-2294, Springer, 2016, open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Peer-reviewed review of the Solanaceae in the history of genetics, read in full text on 2026-08-16. Cited here for one narrow thing only - the reconstructed route of the potato out of South America. It states that all tuber-bearing Solanum species are indigenous to Latin America, that archaeological evidence puts potato cultivation in Peru at roughly nine thousand years, that \"after the Spanish conquest of the Inca state in 1532-1536, the first potatoes were introduced into Europe, most likely via the Canary Islands, where the ships anchored on their way from America to Europe\", that cultivation then spread slowly through Europe over four centuries and thence to the rest of the world, and that the potato is now the world's third food crop after wheat and rice. Reliability 0.8 rather than higher because the historical passage is background in a genetics review rather than its subject, and because the Canary Islands step is explicitly hedged in the source itself (\"most likely\"); that hedge is carried through into the claim that cites it. The article does not discuss early European reluctance to eat the tuber, and nothing of that kind is taken from it." }, { "id": "birch-cooke-2013-early-days-late-blight", "title": "The early days of late blight", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3687336/", "publisher": "Paul R. J. Birch and David E. L. Cooke, eLife 2:e00954, eLife Sciences Publications, 2013, open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Peer-reviewed Insight article in eLife on the historical genomics of Phytophthora infestans, read in full text on 2026-08-16. Cited here for the timing and the human cost of the European potato failure: that the pathogen emerged in the mid-1840s and rapidly became pandemic, that Miles Joseph Berkeley identified it as the cause of the disease in 1846, that the HERB-1 lineage emerged from Mexico in the 1840s to cause severe crop losses on a global scale, and that the famine \"led to almost a million deaths in Ireland and the emigration of many more, plus considerable loss of life and extreme political upheaval throughout mainland Europe\". Reliability 0.85: eLife peer review, authors who work on the pathogen, and the mortality figure given as an approximation (\"almost a million\") rather than a precise count - it is reported here with that approximation intact. The article says nothing about how the potato reached Europe in the first place, and nothing of that kind is taken from it." }, { "id": "karremans-2024-vanilla-artificial-pollination", "title": "A Historical Review of the Artificial Pollination of Vanilla planifolia: The Importance of Collaborative Research in a Changing World", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11598392/", "publisher": "Adam P. Karremans, Plants (Basel) 13(22):3203, MDPI, 2024, open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Peer-reviewed historical review of how Vanilla planifolia came to be pollinated by hand, read in full text on 2026-08-16. It states that up to the eighteenth century vanilla spice \"came exclusively from tropical America, where wild vanilla was gathered rather than cultivated\"; that by the 1760s the Papantla region of Veracruz was the first in the world to cultivate and produce vanilla for international export; that \"outside of the neotropics, vanilla plants do not fruit on their own due to the lack of natural pollinators\"; that Charles Morren achieved artificial pollination at Liege on 16 February 1836 with the first mature fruit in February 1837; and that the discovery led to the mid-nineteenth-century \"Vanilla revolution\" in the Old World tropical colonies. Its value for this corpus is as much its scepticism as its dates: the author argues the widely repeated 1841 date for Edmond Albius is uncertain and that Edmond supplied a practical technique rather than the principle, and writes that \"how Vanilla first came to be artificially pollinated is a controversial issue spurring egotism and nationalism\". Reliability 0.8 and not higher because the paper is an argument in a live priority dispute and is cited here as one party to it, with the standard Albius attribution named as the counterpoint. It contains nothing on Totonac or other pre-Hispanic use, and nothing of that kind is taken from it." }, { "id": "angeli-2020-quinoa-golden-grain", "title": "Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.): An Overview of the Potentials of the Golden Grain and Socio-Economic and Environmental Aspects of Its Cultivation and Marketization", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7074363/", "publisher": "Viktoria Angeli, Pedro Miguel Silva, Danilo Crispim Massuela, Muhammad Waleed Khan, Alicia Hamar, Forough Khajehei, Simone Graeff-Honninger and Cinzia Piatti, Foods 9(2):216, MDPI, 2020, open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Peer-reviewed review of quinoa's agronomy, nutrition and political economy, read in full text on 2026-08-16. Cited here for four things: that cultivation is indigenous to the South American Andes and dated there from 5000 to 3000 BC; that seed protein runs between 11 and 19 per cent and the seeds \"contain all nine essential amino acids (EAA) for proper human health\", with a balance superior to wheat, barley and soybean, and are gluten-free; that during the Spanish colonial period the Spaniards saw quinoa as \"non-Christian\" and looked to replace it with other cereals, so that production, use and consumption fell in urban settings while cultivation survived on the communal aynokas; and that after the FAO's International Year of Quinoa in 2013 prices tripled from 2006 to 2013, with the effect on Andean consumers left unresolved between the worry that low-income urban Peruvians were priced out, Winkel and colleagues' finding that the shift to rice and pasta predates the boom, and Bellemare and colleagues' household analysis showing welfare rising with price. Reliability 0.75: the nutritional and agronomic sections are the review's competence and are well referenced, but the two-sentence account of colonial suppression is a broad claim about motive across three centuries carried without a primary citation, and the claims that use it are pitched low for that reason." }, { "id": "constitucion-monarquia-espanola-1812-madrid", "title": "Constitucion politica de la Monarquia Española, promulgada en Cadiz a 19 de marzo de 1812", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=3LklC8scqKUC&pg=PA4", "publisher": "Las Cortes generales y extraordinarias de la Nacion española, Cadiz, 19 March 1812; the copy read is the reimpression whose title page reads \"Reimpresa de orden superior en la Imprenta Real de Madrid en el mismo año\". Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "The constitutional text itself in an official 1812 setting, read as page scans on 2026-08-17. Reliability is 0.9 rather than higher because this is the Madrid reimpression made by order in the same year and not the Cadiz first impression, and because the volume as digitised has no separate colophon: the imprint statement quoted above is the whole of what the sheets say about their own production. Pages opened and read - PP1, the marbled wrapper, on which a hand has written \"Constitucion\" and drawn an animal, with no printed matter; PA1, the title page, \"CONSTITUCION POLITICA DE LA MONARQUIA ESPAÑOLA, PROMULGADA EN CADIZ A 19 DE MARZO DE 1812. REIMPRESA DE ORDEN SUPERIOR EN LA IMPRENTA REAL DE MADRID EN EL MISMO AÑO\", bearing a library stamp; PA3, the promulgation formula in the name of \"DON FERNANDO SEPTIMO, por la gracia de Dios y la Constitucion de la Monarquía española, Rey de las Españas, y en su ausencia y cautividad la Regencia del reyno, nombrada por las Córtes generales y extraordinarias\", and the opening invocation \"En el nombre de Dios todopoderoso, Padre, Hijo, y Espíritu Santo, autor y supremo legislador de la sociedad\"; PA4, the close of the preamble and TITULO I, CAPITULO I with articles 1 to 3 - \"La Nacion española es la reunion de todos los españoles de ambos hemisferios\", the nation free and independent and no family's or person's patrimony, and sovereignty residing essentially in the Nation; PA5, article 4 on the obligation to conserve and protect civil liberty, property and the other legitimate rights of all the individuals composing it, and article 5 on who are Spaniards, including \"Todos los hombres libres nacidos y avecindados en los dominios de las Españas y los hijos de estos\" and \"Los libertos desde que adquieran la libertad en las Españas\"; PA6, articles 7 to 9 and the opening of the territory clause; PA7, the rest of article 10 - the peninsular list, the Balearics and Canaries \"con las demas posesiones de Africa\", then the whole American enumeration from Nueva España and Goatemala through Cuba with the two Floridas, the Spanish part of Santo Domingo and Puerto Rico to Nueva-Granada, Venezuela, Peru, Chile and the provinces of the Rio de la Plata, and \"En el Asia, las islas Filipinas\" - with article 11 on a future more convenient division of the territory, and CAPITULO II on religion; PA8, the close of article 12, CAPITULO III \"Del Gobierno\" with articles 13 to 17, and CAPITULO IV \"De los ciudadanos españoles\" opening at article 18, \"Son ciudadanos aquellos españoles que por ámbas líneas traen su origen de los dominios españoles de ámbos hemisferios, y estan avecindados en qualquier pueblo de los mismos dominios\"; PA9, articles 19 to 21 on naturalised foreigners and their children, and the opening words of article 22; PA10, the remainder of article 22 on Spaniards \"habidos y reputados por originarios del Africa\" with the five conditions on the carta de ciudadano, article 23 reserving municipal office and the municipal vote to citizens, and article 24 on loss of citizenship; PA11, article 25 on suspension of citizen rights, including \"Tercero: Por el estado de sirviente doméstico\" and \"Sexto: Desde el año de mil ochocientos treinta deberán saber leer y escribir los que de nuevo entren en el exercicio de los derechos de ciudadano\", and article 26; and PA103, the end of article 365 and TITULO IX \"DE LA INSTRUCCION PUBLICA\", CAPITULO UNICO, with article 366 ordering schools of first letters in every town of the monarchy and article 367 on universities and other establishments of instruction." }, { "id": "moliner-2018-tagetes-erecta-edible-flowers", "title": "Edible Flowers of Tagetes erecta L. as Functional Ingredients: Phenolic Composition, Antioxidant and Protective Effects on Caenorhabditis elegans", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6316237/", "publisher": "Cristina Moliner, Lillian Barros, Maria Ines Dias, Victor Lopez, Elisa Langa, Isabel C. F. R. Ferreira and Carlota Gomez-Rincon, Nutrients 10(12):2002, MDPI, 18 December 2018, open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed study of the phenolic composition and antioxidant activity of Tagetes erecta flowers, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here only for its introductory statements of provenance and use, which are the parts within its competence as a phytochemical paper: that the species \"is commonly known as 'African marigold' or 'Aztec marigold'\" and is \"a flowered annual herbaceous plant native from Mexico\"; that it \"is widely cultivated for ornamental, poultry, and medicinal purposes\"; that \"its flowers are used as an ingredient in salads and as natural food colorant\"; and that \"most of the previous research is focused on the xanthophyll content and its use as antioxidant for prevention of age-related macular degeneration\". Reliability 0.8: the analytical work is the paper's subject and is fully reported, but the historical and ethnobotanical sentences are introductory framing carried without primary citation, and nothing here is bound to them beyond nomenclature and present-day cultivation." }, { "id": "burlec-2021-tagetes-erecta-phytochemical", "title": "Phytochemical Profile, Antioxidant Activity, and Cytotoxicity Assessment of Tagetes erecta L. Flowers", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7956293/", "publisher": "Ana Flavia Burlec, Lukasz Pecio, Solomiia Kozachok, Cornelia Mircea, Andreia Corciova, Liliana Verestiuc, Oana Cioanca, Wieslaw Oleszek and Monica Hancianu, Molecules 26(5):1201, MDPI, 2021, open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed phytochemical and cytotoxicity study of Tagetes erecta flowers, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here for four introductory statements: that the species is \"native to Central America (especially Guatemala and Mexico)\"; that \"it was introduced to Europe in the 16th century, having been brought from Mexico\"; that the Spanish and Portuguese names \"flor de muerto\" and \"cravo de defuntos\" \"refer to the common practice in Central America of using an aqueous extract of the plant for washing bodies after death\"; and that \"it is estimated that over 7000 ha are used worldwide for the cultivation of this species, each plant being able to provide around 330 mg xanthophylls\". Reliability 0.75 rather than 0.8, one step below the companion 2018 paper, and the reason is the third of those statements: the inference from two vernacular names to a specific funerary practice is an ethnographic claim made in an analytical chemistry paper without a primary citation, and the object that uses it says so. The paper does not mention the Nahuatl name cempoalxochitl, the Day of the Dead, or any pre-Hispanic use, and no claim is built on those." }, { "id": "olmos-compendio-historia-cordoba-1900", "title": "Compendio de la historia de Córdoba, 1573-1700 — Parte Primera", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=zlBEAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA3", "publisher": "Juan M. Olmos; Córdoba, A. Aveta, Editor — Calle Colón 2, 4 y 6, 1900. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "A local compendium of the history of Córdoba del Tucumán written in Córdoba and printed there in 1900, read as page scans on 2026-08-17. The volume as scanned binds the first part (1573-1700, arabic pagination) together with a second part on the nineteenth century that restarts its own pagination under the RA1- page family. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-17: PP3, a marbled endpaper with no printed matter; PA1, a flyleaf carrying only the shelfmark M.4215; PA3, the title page, \"COMPENDIO DE LA HISTORIA DE CÓRDOBA 1573-1700 POR JUAN M. OLMOS … PARTE PRIMERA … CÓRDOBA, A. AVETA, Editor — Calle Colón 2, 4 y 6, 1900\"; PA5, the opening of the PRELIMINARES; PA65, the head of Capítulo VIII with its contents line \"Educación—Los franciscanos—Los jesuítas—El obispo Trejo y sus fundaciones—Concesión de grados—El convictorio de San Javier—La Universidad—La cañada—Don Felipe de Albornoz—Alzamiento de Calchaquines—Rigor de Cabrera\" and the Franciscan school passage; PA66, the Trejo foundations and the dates 1609, 1613, 1614 and 1622; PA67, the roll of lieutenant governors and the flood of 23 October 1622. Reliability is set at 0.6, well below the tier and lower than any other printed volume cited in this corpus, for three reasons visible in the book itself. It is a compendium with no apparatus: it names no archive, cites no instrument, and quotes its one internal quotation (the Franciscan curriculum) without saying whose words they are. It carries plain typographical errors of date in the same paragraphs relied on here — a lieutenant governor appointed \"en 14 de Febrero de 1513\" where the sequence requires 1613. And it is a work of civic celebration written for the city it is about, so its superlatives are the least trustworthy thing in it; the object that uses it flags the superlative rather than repeating it." }, { "id": "escobar-ramos-2017-haematoxylum-homoisoflavonoids", "title": "Homoisoflavonoids and Chalcones Isolated from Haematoxylum campechianum L., with Spasmolytic Activity", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6151460/", "publisher": "Abraham Escobar-Ramos, Carlos Ernesto Lobato-García, Alejandro Zamilpa, Abraham Gómez-Rivera, Jaime Tortoriello and Manasés González-Cortazar, Molecules 22(9):1405, MDPI, 2017; DOI 10.3390/molecules22091405; open access, read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed phytochemical and pharmacological study of the heartwood of the logwood tree, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here for the introductory and ethnobotanical statements rather than for the chemistry: that the species is known as \"red wood\", \"black wood\" and \"Campeche wood\" \"because it originally was found on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, in the state of Campeche\"; that Mexican traditional medicine used heartwood preparations against depression, kidney disorders, heart problems, toothache, fever, diarrhoea and haemorrhoids, and the branches to remove toxins; and that the heartwood is the source of haematoxylin, employed in histology as a staining agent. Also cited for the result: five compounds isolated, two of them the chalcones sappanchalcone and 3-deoxysappanchalcone, which relaxed guinea-pig ileum comparably to papaverine. Reliability 0.75 rather than 0.8 because the ethnomedical paragraph is a summary without primary citation and the paper says nothing about who introduced haematoxylin to microscopy or when; no claim in this corpus takes that step from it." }, { "id": "plasencia-vazquez-2025-haematoxylum-climate", "title": "Climate Change Effect on Haematoxylum campechianum and Haematoxylum calakmulense (Fabaceae): Are We Losing Our Natural Heritage in South-Eastern Mexico?", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12541238/", "publisher": "Alexis Herminio Plasencia-Vázquez, Alejandro Serrano-Rodríguez and Yarelys Ferrer-Sánchez, Ecology and Evolution 15(10):e72223, 2025; DOI 10.1002/ece3.72223; open access under CC BY 4.0, read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Species-distribution modelling paper on the two Haematoxylum species of south-eastern Mexico, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here for the range and the history it states in passing: that H. campechianum occurs in association with flooded lowlands, isolated or in stands called tintales, from the Yucatán peninsula into Tabasco and Veracruz, naturalised in the Caribbean islands and introduced to Australia and Africa; that the species \"has a history of exploitation for obtaining natural dyes, being the main resource in the region during colonial times\"; that its modelled present distribution is about 177,000 hectares; and that under the projections H. campechianum gains area toward south-eastern Mexico, Belize and Guatemala while its sister species H. calakmulense loses up to 8.6 million hectares of suitable area. The paper does not discuss haematoxylin staining and is not cited for it." }, { "id": "gabriel-2023-haematoxylin-x-mordant", "title": "Evaluation of a New Mordant Based Haematoxylin Dye (Haematoxylin X) for Use in Clinical Pathology", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10560741/", "publisher": "Joshua A. Gabriel, Carla D'Amico, Uchini Kosgodage, Junko Satoc, Nikolas Haine, Sarah Willis and Guy E. Orchard, British Journal of Biomedical Science 80:11591, 2023; DOI 10.3389/bjbs.2023.11591; open access, read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "A method-evaluation paper on a mordant-based haematoxylin formulation, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here only for three statements about the dye's source and standing: that haematoxylin is extracted from the logwood tree Haematoxylum campechianum; that the species name refers to \"its city of origin, which is Campeche, located on the Yucatan peninsula of Mexico\"; and that the dye \"remains the gold standard for microscopic nuclear visualisation\" and, with eosin, the staple of interpreting pathological change. Reliability 0.75 because the paper is an evaluation of a commercial formulation with an interest in the comparison, and because it gives no figures for global usage and no supply or conservation data — neither of which is claimed from it here." }, { "id": "kistler-2015-cucurbita-megafauna", "title": "Gourds and squashes (Cucurbita spp.) adapted to megafaunal extinction and ecological anachronism through domestication", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4679018/", "publisher": "Logan Kistler, Lee A. Newsom, Timothy M. Ryan, Andrew C. Clarke, Bruce D. Smith and George H. Perry, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112(49):15107-15112, 2015; DOI 10.1073/pnas.1516109112; read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Ancient-DNA and phylogenetic study of the genus Cucurbita, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here for the domestication geography and chronology it establishes: that domestication began around 10,000 years before present across several American regions; that C. pepo ssp. pepo originated in the Valley of Oaxaca around 10,000 BP; that eastern North America was an independent centre for C. pepo ssp. ovifera and Mesoamerica for C. argyrosperma and C. moschata, giving at least five domesticated species; that wild precursors include C. pepo ssp. ovifera var. ozarkana and var. texana and C. pepo ssp. fraterna in north-eastern Mexico; and that wild forms are defended by bitter cucurbitacins tolerable to large herbivores, with Cucurbita seeds recovered from mastodon dung deposits, so that the genus was coadapted to a megafaunal landscape and domestication is what carried it past that landscape's disappearance." }, { "id": "erickson-2005-bottle-gourd-asian-origin", "title": "An Asian origin for a 10,000-year-old domesticated plant in the Americas", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1311910/", "publisher": "David L. Erickson, Bruce D. Smith, Andrew C. Clarke, Daniel H. Sandweiss and Noreen Tuross, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102(51):18315-18320, 2005; DOI 10.1073/pnas.0509279102; read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Ancient-DNA study of archaeological bottle-gourd rind from the Americas, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here for the finding that separates the two plants Spanish writers called calabaza: that every pre-contact archaeological rind fragment from which DNA could be amplified matched the modern Asian reference group, while a single post-contact specimen carried African markers; that the bottle gourd Lagenaria siceraria was therefore most likely carried into the Americas by Paleoindian populations rather than drifting from Africa; that it was present as a domesticate by 10,000 BP; and that it was a utility plant, valued for containers and fishing floats rather than as food, unlike the Cucurbita squashes." }, { "id": "lord-2020-guinea-pig-ancient-dna", "title": "Ancient DNA of Guinea Pigs (Cavia spp.) Indicates a Probable New Center of Domestication and Pathways of Global Distribution", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7264122/", "publisher": "Edana Lord, Catherine Collins, Susan deFrance, Michelle J. LeFebvre, Fabienne Pigière, Peter Eeckhout, Christine Erauw et al., Scientific Reports 10:8901, 2020; DOI 10.1038/s41598-020-65784-6; CC BY 4.0; read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Palaeogenomic study of Cavia, full text read on 2026-08-17. Cited here for the forty-six complete mitogenomes assembled from sixty-six archaeological samples at a sixty-four per cent success rate; for the twelve ancient Colombian samples (Checua II c. 5940-5670 BC to El Venado c. AD 1600) belonging to a distinct species tentatively identified as Cavia anolaimae and separated from domestic C. porcellus by 1,406 mutations, read by the authors as a probable second centre of domestication in the Colombian highlands; for the probable Peruvian origin of the Caribbean guinea pigs, with two haplotypes indicating possibly two introductions from about AD 600 in Puerto Rico and later dispersal to Antigua and the Lesser Antilles, linked to Kuelap, Pachacamac and Lo Demas; for the earliest known European remains at Mons, Belgium, AD 1550-1640, clustering with modern European guinea pigs and consistent with transport from Bolivia and southern Peru during Spanish colonisation; and for the Charleston specimen of about AD 1820 discarded in a privy with an Amazonian parrot. The authors' own caveats on poor preservation at coastal Caribbean and Peruvian sites are recorded in the object's limits claim." }, { "id": "otyama-2020-peanut-core-collection", "title": "Genotypic Characterization of the U.S. Peanut Core Collection", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7642936/", "publisher": "Paul I. Otyama, Roshan Kulkarni, Kelly Chamberlin, Peggy Ozias-Akins, Ye Chu, Lori M. Lincoln, Gregory E. MacDonald et al., G3: Genes|Genomes|Genetics 10(11):4013, 2020; DOI 10.1534/g3.120.401306; read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Genotyping study of the United States peanut core collection, full text read on 2026-08-17. Cited here for the statements that cultivated peanut was domesticated in central South America following tetraploidization of a hybrid of A. duranensis and A. ipaensis; that the genetics, phenotype and biogeography are consistent with an origin in southeast Bolivia, both wild progenitors growing close to Villa Montes in the Province of Tarija; that the crop's diversity arose from a severe bottleneck at a tetraploidization event roughly 10,000 years ago, likely involving a rare single plant in an early horticulturalist's garden; that the main varieties were already regionally distributed in South America, the earliest landraces associated with Bolivian, Peruvian and Ecuadorian accessions; that \"throughout the colonial period (~1492-1832), peanut cultivation spread quickly around the world\", with little genetic clustering by country of origin reflecting rapid global dispersion in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; and for the 2017 figure of twenty-eight million hectares and forty-seven million metric tons worldwide." }, { "id": "munoz-2017-wild-legume-germplasm", "title": "Potential Uses of Wild Germplasms of Grain Legumes for Crop Improvement", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5343864/", "publisher": "Nacira Muñoz, Ailin Liu, Leo Kan, Man-Wah Li and Hon-Ming Lam, International Journal of Molecular Sciences 18(2):328, 2017; DOI 10.3390/ijms18020328; read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed review of wild germplasm in grain legumes, full text read on 2026-08-17. Reliability is set below the other paper registered with it because this is a review reporting the peanut literature at second hand rather than new analysis, and because its dating of the polyploidy event conflicts with that paper's. Cited here for the centre of origin of Arachis in South America with wild species in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina and Uruguay; for the oldest archaeological records of A. hypogaea from the Huarmey Valley, Peru, at approximately 3500-4500 years ago; for the Ñanchoc Valley records of about 7840 years ago that the review itself says may be wild species or a very early stage of domestication; for the reported alternative origin in northern Argentina and eastern Bolivia; and for A. monticola as the tetraploid wild ancestor." }, { "id": "motolinia-carta-al-emperador-cdi-1858", "title": "Carta de Fray Toribio de Motolinia [al emperador Carlos V], in Colección de documentos para la historia de México, tomo primero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=WJk6nlChEKYC&pg=PA253", "publisher": "Fray Toribio de Benavente (Motolinía), c. 1555; published by Joaquín García Icazbalceta, Mexico, Librería de J. M. Andrade / Imprenta particular del editor, 1858. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Registered separately from motolinia-historia-1858 although both are printed in the same digitised volume: the Historia and this letter are different documents with different purposes, and the letter must not borrow the Historia's page warrant. Read as page scans on 2026-08-18. PA253, the head-title \"CARTA DE FRAY TORIBIO DE MOTOLINIA\", the salutation \"S. C. C. M.\", and the opening statement of purpose — three things move the author to write, the first being to remove \"parte de los escrúpulos quel de las Casas, Obispo que fué de Chiapa, pone á V. M. i á los de vuestros Consejos\". PA258, the passage cited here: the accusation that Las Casas occupied himself little in New Spain except in loading and tiring Indians, that he came to Tlaxcala \"i traia tras de sí cargados 27 ó 37 Indios que acá llaman Tamemes\", the refused baptism of an Indian who had walked three or four days for it, and the author's own retort — \"que solo vuestra caridad traeis cargados mas Indios que treinta Frayles\". Reliability is set well below the tier and should stay there: this is a polemical letter written to damage a named adversary, printed from a nineteenth-century editor's manuscript text rather than from an autograph, and its numbers (\"27 ó 37\") are the author's own recollection of an episode decades earlier. It is strong evidence for what the word tameme meant to a Spanish friar writing for a European reader, and for the fact that the practice was common enough to be thrown at Las Casas as an accusation; it is weak evidence for what Las Casas actually did." }, { "id": "mendieta-libro-iv-cuanto-al-cargar-los-indios", "title": "Historia eclesiástica indiana, libro IV, capítulo XXIX — the sections \"Cuanto al cargar los indios\" and \"Cuanto á otros trabajos personales\"", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=e0Aa0Glxa6UC&pg=PA472", "publisher": "Fray Gerónimo de Mendieta, written at the end of the sixteenth century; first published by Joaquín García Icazbalceta, Mexico, Antigua Librería, 1870. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Registered separately from the other Mendieta entries in this file, which are scoped to libro IV cap. XIII and cap. XV and to the 1870 front matter, because this is a different chapter making different claims and should not borrow their page warrant. Reliability sits below the tier for the reasons the other Mendieta entries give: what is printed is an editor's text established in 1870 from manuscript, and the author is a Franciscan writing up his own order's advocacy. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-18 — PA471, the close of the section on Indian slavery, with the ordinances of Toledo of 1528, the Valladolid provision of 3 September 1543, the Granada provision of 9 November 1526 and the Madrid provision of 2 August 1553, and the head of the royal letter to the Franciscans of New Spain ordering that a procurador general be named to sue for the liberty of Indians held as slaves; PA472, the close of that letter, dated \"De Valladolid, á siete de Julio de mil y quinientos y cincuenta años\", and the whole opening of the section \"Cuanto al cargar los indios\" with the side-note \"Tamemes de carga quitados por el Emperador\"; PA473, the end of that section, the section \"Cuanto á otros trabajos personales\" with the side-note \"Personales servicios, prohibidos por el Emperador\", and the opening of \"Cuanto al buen tratamiento de los indios\". The chapter is one of the few places in print where the whole legislative sequence on human porterage — prohibition, lobbying, concession, second prohibition — is set out with its dates and penalties by a writer who also states that it was not obeyed." }, { "id": "lorenzana-1769-serie-obispos-antequera", "title": "Serie de los Illmos. Señores Obispos de la Santa Iglesia de Antequera [Oaxaca], printed in the volume of the first and second Mexican provincial councils", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=sMREAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA310", "publisher": "Compiled and published by Francisco Antonio Lorenzana, archbishop of Mexico; Mexico, Imprenta de el Superior Gobierno, del Br. D. Joseph Antonio de Hogal, 1769. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Registered separately from concilios-mexicanos-lorenzana-1769, which is scoped to the acts of the council of 1555 printed in the same physical volume: this is a different item bound with them — an eighteenth-century catalogue of the bishops of the suffragan see of Antequera — and it must not borrow the conciliar text's tier or page warrant. Tiered secondary because it is a compiled series of episcopal lives written more than a century after the events it reports here, and reliability is set at 0.7 because its author was himself an archbishop of Mexico assembling the merits of his predecessors, a genre that records foundations and omits quarrels. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-18 — PA310, the close of the life of the bishop who entered the see in 1661, with his foundation of the Colegio Seminario \"no solo con Autoridad Real, que consta en Cédula de la Señora Reyna Gobernadora, su fecha en Madrid á 12. de Abril de 1673, mas tambien con Breve Pontificio de el Señor Innocencio XI. su data en Roma en 20. de Febrero de 1677\", his death on 25 January 1678, and the opening of the life of \"El Illmô. Sr. D. Nicolas de el Puerto\", born to parents resident at Santa Catalina de las Minas in that same bishopric, colegial of the Real de San Ildefonso in Mexico City, doctor in sacred canons of its university and advocate of its Real Audiencia; PA311, the rest of that life — possession of the see on 7 February 1679, the foundation in the Colegio Seminario of \"dos Cáthedras de Gramática, una de Filosofía, y dos de Sagrada Theología\", the donation to it of \"su grande Librería\", and his death in the city on 13 August 1681." }, { "id": "carvajal-relacion-medina-1894", "title": "Relación que escribió Fr. Gaspar de Carvajal, fraile de la Orden de Santo Domingo de Guzmán, del nuevo descubrimiento del famoso río grande que descubrió por muy gran ventura el Capitán Francisco de Orellana, in Descubrimiento del río de las Amazonas", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=52cOJZw1wDAC&pg=PA3", "publisher": "Sevilla, Imprenta de E. Rasco, Bustos Tavera núm. 1, 1894; edited with an historical introduction by José Toribio Medina and published at the expense of the Duque de T'Serclaes de Tilly; digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "The eyewitness narrative of the first descent of the Amazon, written by the Dominican who made the voyage, read as page scans on 2026-08-18. This is NINETEENTH-CENTURY PRINT, not any printing Carvajal saw: the title page states \"según la relación hasta ahora inédita de Fr. Gaspar de Carvajal\", so the text reaches this instance through a manuscript copy transcribed by Medina, and reliability is set well below the tier for that distance and for the ordinary risk of a nineteenth-century transcription. Medina's own introduction, 240 roman-numbered pages of it, is nineteenth-century scholarship and is NOT cited here; only the sixteenth-century text is. Pages opened and read 2026-08-18. PR1, the half-title with a presentation inscription; PR3, the title page with imprint and year. PA1, the relación's own heading, which gives the voyage \"con cincuenta y siete hombres\" and says the river \"por el nombre del capitán que le descubrió se llamó el Río de Orellana\". PA3, the opening, Orellana as \"capitán y teniente de gobernador de la ciudad de Sanctiago\" and of Puerto Viejo, going to Quito for the search for cinnamon under Gonzalo Pizarro. PA62, Carvajal's arrow wound — \"me dieron un flechazo por un ojo que pasó la flecha á la otra parte, de la cual herida he perdido el ojo\" — and, on the same page, the settlement density: \"no distaba un pueblo de otro distancia de media legua\", and inland \"á dos leguas, y más, y á menos, parecían muy grandes ciudades que estaban blanqueando\". PA65, the province of Sant Juan, one hundred and fifty leagues, \"todas las cuales pasamos con mucho trabajo de hambre, dejando aparte la guerra, porque, como era muy poblada, no hubo lugar de saltar en tierra\", the captain throwing trade goods in a gourd to sue for peace, and inland \"mucho poblado y caminos\". PA71, a village taken by force, the maize loaded into the brigantines, and the death of Antonio de Carranza, natural de Burgos, from a poisoned arrow twenty-four hours after the wound. The volume carries NO search layer — queries for \"Amazonas\" and for \"Orellana\" both return zero results — so its pages were reached through the índice at PA277, which places the relación at page 3 and the documents at page 85." }, { "id": "gonzalo-pizarro-carta-tomebamba-1542", "title": "Carta de Gonzalo Pizarro al Rey, fecha en Tomebamba, á 3 de Septiembre de 1542, in Descubrimiento del río de las Amazonas, Documentos I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=52cOJZw1wDAC&pg=PA85", "publisher": "Archivo General de Indias, Patronato, estante 1.º, cajón 1.º, legajo 1/6, núm. 2, ramo 11; first published by Marcos Jiménez de la Espada in La Ilustración Española y Americana of 22 August 1892; reprinted Sevilla, Imprenta de E. Rasco, 1894, and digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "The commander's own report to Charles V, written six weeks after he got back to Quito, registered separately from the Carvajal relación bound with it because it is a different document by a different hand with a different interest, and because letting the two share one id would hide that this corpus's account of the separation rests on both sides of a quarrel. Its footnote at PA85 gives the archival signature above. Reliability is set below the tier because the letter is a self-exculpation written by the losing party of a jurisdictional dispute, addressed to the sovereign who would judge it. Pages opened and read 2026-08-18. PA85, the opening, the governorship of Quito renounced in his favour by \"el Marqués mi hermano, ya difunto\", and the reports \"por caciques prencipales y muy antiguos como por españoles\" that the province of la Canela and the Laguna del Dorado was rich and populous. PA89, the moment of the separation, Orellana proposing to go for food with the brigantine, the canoes and sixty men and to return \"dentro de diez ó doce días\". PA90, the accusation itself, that Orellana \"en lugar de traer la comida, se fué por el río sin dejar ningún proveimiento\", leaving the camp the harquebuses, crossbows, munitions and ironwork and \"usando con todo el real de la mayor crueldad que infieles ningunos usaran\", and the camp reduced to eating \"cogollos de bihaos y algunos cuescos que hallaban por el suelo\"." }, { "id": "mendoza-rios-tables-1805", "title": "A Complete Collection of Tables for Navigation and Nautical Astronomy, with simple, concise, and accurate methods, for all the calculations useful at sea", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=fO5eAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3", "publisher": "By Joseph de Mendoza Rios, Esq. F.R.S. London: printed by T. Bensley, Bolt-Court; sold by R. Faulder, New Bond-Street; Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme, Paternoster-Row; Blacks and Parry; W. Heather, Leadenhall-Street; and Payne and Mackinlay, Strand. 1805. Digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "The first edition of the tables, read as page scans on 2026-08-18. Reliability is set a little below the ceiling because everything taken from it here is the author's own account of his own book. Pages opened and read 2026-08-18. PR1, the half-title, which prints the retail price, \"[Price One Guinea in Sheets.]\". PR3, the title page, with the sub-title \"particularly for deducing the longitude from lunar distances, and the latitude from two altitudes of the sun and the interval of time between the observations\", the author's name and \"F.R.S.\", the London imprint and the year 1805. PR5-PR6, the dedication \"TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE Sir JOSEPH BANKS, Baronet, K.B., President of the Royal Society\", declaring \"that Navigators will be indebted to you, for a considerable share of any benefit they may derive from the methods offered to their use in the following pages\", and signed \"Portman-Place, Nov. 1804. JOSEPH DE MENDOZA RIOS.\" PR7, the preface, which states that published in the usual manner the price \"must have been so high as to confine its utility solely to that class of Navigators who are in easy circumstances; and which, unfortunately, is not the most numerous\", that \"the Commissioners of Longitude have remedied this disadvantage, by granting a sum of money to reduce the price to the Public\", that \"the Court of Directors of the East India Company ... have also voted a sum of money, to effect a farther reduction in the price of this work\", and that with \"this double assistance, and the additional sacrifice, on my part, of all views of profit, I have settled the sale of this edition on the moderate terms at which it is now published\". A structural map taken with one jscmd=click3 call reports 807 page ids in the volume." }, { "id": "baas-report-mathematical-tables-1873", "title": "Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables, in Report of the Forty-third Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=bXw3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA134", "publisher": "British Association for the Advancement of Science, London, 1873; digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "The British Association's committee report on mathematical tables, read as page scans on 2026-08-18. It is registered as primary because it is a digitised original printing opened here, but everything drawn from it in this corpus is the committee's own retrospective assessment made sixty-eight years after Mendoza's first edition, and the claims that cite it say so. Pages opened and read 2026-08-18. PA134, the description of table T.H. in Stansbury's collection, where the report explains that \"By 'versed' and 'sucoversed' are meant 'semiversed sine' and 'semisucoversed sine' (the terms introduced by De Mendoza y Rios being used for brevity, see Rios, 1809)\", and then states of the same table that \"This table was copied from T. XVI. of Rios; but there is a difference of arrangement, as the original table gave log sines, cosines, &c., the arrangement being semiquadrantal, while in the present work it is quadrantal\". PA155, the alphabetical list of works, where the entry reads \"MENDOZA. See RIOS.\" PA159, the Rios entries: \"RIOS, JOSEPH DE MENDOZA. A complete collection of Tables for Navigation and Nautical Astronomy ... Second edition, improved. London, 1809. 4to (604 pp. of tables)\" and \"RIOS, JOSÉ DE MENDOZA Y. Coleccion completa de Tablas para los usos de la Navegacion y Astronomia Náutica ... Primera Tirada. Madrid, 1850. 4to.\" A SearchWithinVolume query for \"Mendoza\" on this volume returns three pages, PA134, PA155 and PA159, and all three were opened." }, { "id": "alvarez-borjes-practica-albeyteria-madrid-1680", "title": "Practica, y observaciones pertenecientes al arte de Albeyteria, en que se manifiesta el modo particular con que se deben curar las mas graues causas que se pueden ofrecer en este Arte", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=mUzdm7kd_VkC&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Iuan Alvarez Borjes, Herrador y Albeytar Mayor de las Reales Cauallerizas; En Madrid, por Iuan Garcia Infançon, año 1680. Copy stamped by the Institut d'Estudis Catalans, full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "The Madrid 1680 imprint itself, read as page scans on 2026-08-18. Reliability is set below the tier because the author is an interested party twice over: he holds the royal office that examined and licensed every farrier in the monarchy, and the book was sold from his own house (\"Hallarase en casa del Autor\"), so its judgements on rival authors are the judgements of the man who could fail their pupils. Pages opened and read 2026-08-18. PP5, a blank flyleaf. PP7, the title page, which gives the work, the author \"IVAN ALVAREZ BORJES, NATVRAL DEL lugar de Mosebres, en el Reyno de Portugal, Concejo de la Villa de Murça de Panoya, Comarca de la Torre de Moncoruo\", his office \"Herrador, y Albeytar Mayor que fue de las Reales Cauallerizas del Rey nuestro Señor Don Felipe Quarto (que està en gloria) y al presente lo es de las del Rey nuestro Señor Carlos Segundo\", and then \"Alcalde, y Examinador Mayor en todos sus Reynos, y Señorios, de todos los Herradores, y Albeytares\", with the dedication to the Almirante de Castilla, \"CON PRIVILEGIO. En Madrid: Por Iuan Garcia Infançon, Año 1680. Hallarase en casa del Autor\". PP8, the verso of the title leaf, blank but for show-through. PP9, the head of the dedication under the arms of \"DON IVAN GASPAR ENRIQVEZ DE CABRERA, Grande Almirante de Castilla ... su Cauallerizo Mayor\". PP12, the aprobacion of the Jesuit Lucas de Nevares, master of moral theology and synodal examiner of Plasencia and Cuenca, resident in the Colegio Imperial de Madrid, who reports that his censure turned into praise because the book is \"naturalmente discurrido, y aun filosoficamente tratado, ya con medicos fundamentos, ya con razones experimentales\". PP14, the licence of the Ordinary signed by Alonso Rico y Villarroel at Madrid on 6 June 1680. PP15, the professional censure \"DE ANDRES BEJARANO, Maestro de Herrador, y Albeytar de las Cauallerizas Reales de la Reyna nuestra Señora\", made \"Por mandado de V.A.\", which complains that in many faculties practitioners are content to follow \"el estilo que hallaron escrito, ò comunmente practicado, sin aplicar la debida reflexion, à lo mismo que executan\" and praises this author for not keeping to \"la ordinaria vereda\". PA55 to PA59 and PA150 to PA154, chapters of the text; PA56 carries the discussion of dislocations of the spine, the pasmos that follow wounds and punctures of the feet and hands, the authority of Calvo reported through Arredondo, the rule \"que es autoridad de toda la Algebra, y Albeyteria, que todas las dislocaciones se ayan de reducir à su lugar, y aun entablillar, y ligar\", and the note that \"Solo Francisco de la Reyna, dize, que si el Maestro no supiere concertar, busque vn Algebrista que lo concierte\"; PA151 carries the author's judgement on two authors who prescribed for blisters what he thinks they never tried, \"à mi me parece, que ni el vno, ni el otro lo experimentò, porque es imposible le sucediera bien\", the report that \"Francisco de la Reyna dize se abra con hierro caliente al fuego\" and the author's advice \"de todo esto se ha de huir mucho por no formar llaga\", and the four intentions of wound treatment, \"digerir, mundificar, encarnar, y cicatrizar\"." }, { "id": "royo-llave-albeyteria-zaragoza-1734", "title": "Llave de Albeyteria, primera, y segunda parte, en que se trata de todos los principios assi antiguos, como modernos de la Facultad, declarando muchos phenomenos, y arcanos, que nuestros authores no los alcançaron", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=6XksEa20dIkC&pg=PP7", "publisher": "El Maestro Domingo Royo, Albeytar de la Villa de la Almunia de Doña Godina; En Zaragoza, por Francisco Revilla (primera parte) y por Joseph Fort (segunda parte), año 1734. Copy stamped by the Biblioteca of the Escuela Especial de Veterinaria de Madrid, full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "The Zaragoza 1734 imprint itself, read as page scans on 2026-08-18. Reliability is set below the tier because the author writes as an advocate in a controversy about bleeding and reports the practice of distant nations at second hand. Pages opened and read 2026-08-18. PP7, the title page, with the work, the two parts, the claim to treat \"todos los Principios assi antiguos, como modernos de la Facultad, declarando muchos Phenomenos, y Arcanos, que nuestros Authores no los alcançaron, deseando con ellos hazer un Albeytar consumado\", the author \"EL MAESTRO DOMINGO ROYO, ALBEYTAR de la muy Noble, y Fidelissima Villa de la Almunia, Natural de Azuara en la Comunidad de Daroca de el Reyno de Aragon\", the dedication to the same villa, \"CON LICENCIA, Y PRIVILEGIO: En Zaragoza: Por Francisco Revilla, la primera Parte. Y la segunda Parte por Joseph Fort, año 1734\", and, stamped at the foot of the leaf, the oval library mark of the \"ESCUELA ESPECIAL DE VETERINARIA DE MADRID BIBLIOTECA\". PP9, the opening of the dedication to the council of La Almunia under the arms of the villa, where the author states his motive: a lifetime of reading brought him \"la inteligencia de algunas particulares medicinas, que usè con feliz sucesso en casos yà deplorados\", and understanding by \"la experiencia larga de mi dilatada edad\" that they would serve \"à la utilidad comun\", he overcame \"los embarazos de mi encogimiento, para sacar à luz este Libro\". PA373 and PA374, chapter XXV of the second part, on the disease called lobado or buon, which carry the whole argument against routine bleeding: the complaint that masters reach for the lancet \"sin atencion ninguna de si està indicada, ò no lo està, solo porque los Authores lo mandan assi\"; the historical and comparative survey, \"Es, y ha sido recibida con grande variedad la sangria en diferentes siglos, y Naciones. Poco, ò nada la admitiò el Romano Imperio, hasta que Galeno la introduxo contra Erasistrato\", and the report that the Chinese and Japanese \"jamàs se han sangrado, ni dexan sangrar, viven muy sanos, y fuertes gozando de larga vida\"; the observation that the chemists have abandoned the remedy while others heap on Galen \"mil oprobios ... tratandolo de barbaro, ignorante, enemigo, y monstruo de la naturaleza\"; the sentence about his own country, \"Solo aqui en España vive, y reyna la sangria con tan seguro ceptro, que no ay litigio de la salud, donde no dè la primera decision su authoridad\"; the evidence that changed his mind, \"he visto, que los cadaveres en los muladares han sido los mas infalibles avisos, de que era forçoso retirarme de tal practica\"; and his conclusion, \"Mi dictamen es, que en esta enfermedad no se ha de entrar sangrando\", with the reason that the venom does not leave with the blood and that bleeding costs the spirits that resist it. PA375 to PA377 were opened and belong to the same chapter." }, { "id": "laguna-dioscorides-anazarbeo-1555", "title": "Pedacio Dioscorides Anazarbeo, acerca de la materia medicinal y de los venenos mortiferos, traduzido de lengua Griega, en la vulgar Castellana, & illustrado con claras y substantiales Annotationes, y con las figuras de innumeras plantas exquisitas y raras, por el Doctor Andres de Laguna", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=hG0rnSNIDykC&pg=PP2", "publisher": "Andrés Laguna; En Anvers, en casa de Iuan Latio (Jean Bellère / Juan Latio), Anno M.D.LV (1555). Copy of the Universidad Complutense, Biblioteca de Medicina; full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The Antwerp 1555 first edition of Laguna's Castilian Dioscorides itself, read as page scans on 2026-08-19. Reliability is set below the tier because the witch-ointment episode is told by Laguna about himself and cannot be checked against another witness, and because his pharmacological framework is that of his day. Pages opened and read 2026-08-19: PP2, the title page — \"PEDACIO DIOSCORIDES ANAZARBEO, ACERCA DE LA MATERIA MEDICINAL, Y DE LOS VENENOS MORTIFEROS, Traduzido de lengua Griega, en la vulgar Castellana, & illustrado con claras y substantiales Annotationes, y con las figuras de innumeras plantas exquisitas y raras, por el Doctor Andres de Laguna, Medico de Iulio III. Pont. Max.\", dedicated \"DIVO PHILIPPO, DIVI CAROLI V. AVG. FILIO HAEREDI\", \"EN ANVERS, En casa de Iuan Latio. Anno, M.D.LV.\", \"Cum Gratia & Priuilegio Imperiali\", with the Habsburg arms and the oval stamp of the \"UNIVERSIDAD [COMPLUTENSE] BIBLIOTECA [DE] MEDICINA\". PP3, the dedicatory poem to Rui Gómez de Silva, Conde de Melito, in the voice of Dioscorides (\"Siendo nacido en Grecia ... Al sossegado Reyno de Castilla ... Debaxo de la sombra y dulce amparo, Del gran PHILIPPO\"). PP5, the prologue, where Laguna states his purpose: that Dioscorides \"à todas las otras lenguas se hauia comunicado ... saluo à la nuestra Española\", the least cultivated of the vulgar tongues \"con ser ella la mas capaz, ciuil, y fecunda\", and that he resolved \"de hazerle de Griego Español, y d'illustrarle con Cómentarios, y con las figuras de todas las yeruas ... en beneficio immortal de toda la patria\", having spent the greater part of his fortune bringing simples from Greece, Egypt and Barbary. PA421-PA422, the annotation to the Solano (nightshade) in libro IIII, where Laguna reports the flying-ointment episode: as salaried physician of the city of Metz he visited Duke Francisco de Lorena, ill at Nancy in 1545; an accused couple held in a hermitage confessed under torture; in their hut was found \"una olla medio llena de un cierto unguento verde ... compuesto de yeruas ... en ultimo grado frias y soporiferas: quales son la Cicuta, el Solano, el Veleño, y la Mandragora\"; Laguna procured a pot of it through the alguacil \"que me era amigo\" and had the hangman's wife, an insomniac driven half-frantic by jealousy, anointed from head to foot; she fell into so deep a sleep, eyes open like a hare, that he despaired of waking her, and after 36 hours of forced ligatures, frictions, oil of costus and euphorbium, fumigations and cupping he restored her to her senses, her first words being \"Porque en mal punto me despertastes, que estaua rodeada de todos los plazeres y deleytes del mundo?\"; from which he concludes \"que todo quanto dizen y hazen las desuenturadas bruxas, es sueño, causado de beurages y unctiones muy frias\", following the opinion of most theologians and the \"sano parecer de la Sancta iglesia de Roma\"." }, { "id": "olmedilla-vida-de-andres-laguna-1887", "title": "Estudio histórico de la vida y escritos del sabio español Andrés Laguna, médico de Carlos I y Felipe II y célebre escritor y botánico del siglo XVI", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=m-8CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA95", "publisher": "Joaquín Olmedilla y Puig; Madrid, Establecimiento Tip. de El Correo, á cargo de F. Fernández, 1887. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "A 214-page biographical study of Laguna by the pharmacist and historian of science Joaquín Olmedilla y Puig, read as page scans on 2026-08-19. Nineteenth-century scholarship, admiring in tone, so reliability is set at 0.8. Pages read: PA1, the fold-out portrait \"ANDRÉS LAGUNA\", captioned \"Retrato histórico tomado de la MATERIA MEDICINAL DE DIOSCÓRIDES, Edicion de Salamanca, de 1570, reproducido por el fotograbado\", the circle lettered ANDREAS LACVNA SEGOBIENSIS ... MEDICVS IVLII III PONT MAX. PA95, the head of \"PARTE SEXTA\", the bibliographical study of the Dioscorides, which argues that the importance of the work requires a separate chapter \"para poder apreciar con exactitud hasta dónde llegaban los conocimientos científicos de Laguna y juzgar con acierto el estado de las ciencias naturales en España en la décimasexta centuria\", calling it \"una enciclopedia de medicamentos\". PA97, on Dioscorides as a military physician of the Roman armies whose Materia medicinal is the work \"donde se ha fijado principalmente la historia\", and on the earlier editions — Jean Ruel 1518, and the Alcalá edition annotated by Antonio de Nebrija with a Lexicon of medical plant-names giving their Castilian equivalents." }, { "id": "morales-antiguedades-ciudades-1792", "title": "Las antigüedades de las ciudades de España que van nombradas en la Corónica, con las averiguaciones de sus sitios y nombres antiguos, que escrebía Ambrosio de Morales", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=6GDXLtzdyWUC&pg=PA330", "publisher": "Ambrosio de Morales (first published 1575); edition Madrid, Benito Cano, 1792. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "Ambrosio de Morales's account of the water-machine of Juanelo Turriano at Toledo, read as page scans on 2026-08-19 in the 1792 Madrid edition of his Antigüedades (first printed 1575). Morales is a first-hand witness who saw Janelo demonstrate the model and to whom Janelo himself recounted its genesis (\"según él á mí me ha contado\"), so the passage is a primary source for the machine although the printing read is late; reliability 0.85 because it is a partisan celebration by a friend and royal chronicler. Pages read: PA330, the maravilloso aqueduct \"con que se sube el agua desde el rio hasta el alcazar. Inventólo y executólo Janelo Turriano, natural de Cremona en Lombardía\", already famed for the two clocks he built for Charles V and for Philip II. PA331, the origin of the project in the lament of the Marqués del Gasto Don Alonso de Ávalos over Toledo's want of water, the Tagus \"tan hundido en el profundo de aquellos valles\"; Janelo, the emperor's clockmaker who followed Charles V into retirement at Yuste \"hasta su muerte\", agreeing with the city to give it \"cierta quantidad de agua perpetua\". PA332-PA333, the mechanism: small timbers jointed crosswise in a chain driven by a river-wheel, carrying brass pipes \"quasi de una braza en largo\" with vessels at their ends that rise and fall, one filling as the other empties and pausing to pour into each other; and the comparison of its graduated motion to \"la mas baxa arteria del pie humano\" and the pulse. PA334, Janelo's boast to Morales that he had seen men who knew more astronomy and geometry than he \"mas hasta agora no he visto quien sepa tanta Aritmética como yo\", and the ninth marvel — more than two hundred little wooden cars bearing five hundred quintals of brass and fifteen hundred cántaros of water perpetually, yet so balanced \"si cesase la rueda que mueve el rio, un niño menearia fácilmente toda la máquina\". PA335, the arcaduces of copper, the wooden bridge Janelo remade after Julius Caesar's at Marseilles, and the norias he later made in Madrid. PA336, the statue-motto \"VIRTVS. NVNQVAM. QVIESCIT.\" (\"La fuerza de un grande ingenio nunca puede sosegar\") and Morales's Latin epigram to \"IANNELO TVRRIANO CREMONENSI, AETHEREI OLIMPOPIFICII AEMVLATORI, NVNC NATVRAE IN AQVIS DOMITORI\"." }, { "id": "escosura-artificio-de-juanelo-1888", "title": "El artificio de Juanelo y el puente de Julio César: memoria publicada en las Memorias de la Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ROJcAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA58", "publisher": "Luis de la Escosura y Morrogh; Madrid, Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, 1888. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "An 1888 engineering memoir of the Real Academia de Ciencias by the mining engineer Luis de la Escosura y Morrogh reconstructing Juanelo's machine and its documentary record, read as page scans on 2026-08-19. Peer body of Spanish science, technical and archival in method; reliability 0.85. Pages read: PA13, on Roman lead-pipe manufacture after Vitruvius as context for the hydraulics. PA58, the documented chronology — Philip II ordered 400 ducados paid to Juanelo in July 1573 \"atendiendo á sus buenos servicios y á su necesidad\"; the second ingenio was finished by 1581, and by the following year the first, \"á los catorce años de su instalación\", was in bad repair and beginning to collapse, so the king ordered it mended; and Lope de Vega's verses on the rise of the water to the Alcázar. PA59, Esteban Garibay's eyewitness account of Juanelo's burial: \"Joanelo Turriano, natural de Lombardía\", who made \"la admirable fábrica de la subida del agua del Tajo al Alcázar de Toledo\", died at Toledo 13 June 1585 aged about eighty-five, buried in the chapel of Nuestra Señora del Soterraño in the church of the Carmen, \"y jamás habló bien en la española\"; and the settlements the crown paid his heir Bárbara Medea Turriano — two hundred ducados in December 1585 and two thousand in December 1586 \"á buena cuenta de seis mil\" owed for one of the ingenios — and his grandson kept on to tend the machine." }, { "id": "charlevoix-history-of-paraguay-1769", "title": "The History of Paraguay: containing amongst many other new, curious and interesting particulars of that country, a full and authentic account of the establishments formed there by the Jesuits, volume I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=40sIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA385", "publisher": "Pierre-Francois-Xavier de Charlevoix, of the Society of Jesus; Dublin, P. and W. Wilson, 1769 (English translation of the Histoire du Paraguay, Paris 1756)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The order's own history of its Paraguay province, in the Dublin English printing of 1769, read as page scans on 2026-08-12; the running foot \"VOL. I.\" is visible at PA383 and PA385. Tiered secondary and given a low reliability because it is advocacy by an interested party at two removes: Charlevoix is a Jesuit writing the Jesuit case from the relations of other Jesuits, chiefly Nicolas del Techo, and he says so on the page - at PA266 he ventures \"to affirm, that the kings of Spain, and their spanish subjects, are those, who reap\" the benefit of the mission militia. A printer's error is worth recording against the volume: the marginal date at PA377 reads \"1738-39\" where the text beside it says January 1638. Pages opened and read 2026-08-12. PA14, the herb of Paraguay as the chief wealth of the province and of the mission towns, the boom that made fortunes, and the recourse to Indian labour that followed. PA15, the Indians made servants and then treated as slaves, many perishing \"under a species of drudgery they were not accustomed to\"; the herb described as the leaf of a tree the size of a middling apple-tree; its use in Peru wherever mining is going forward; the two names Caa or Caamini and Caacuys or Yerva de Palos. PA16, del Techo's three kinds Caacuys, Caamini and Caaguazu, the roasted leaf stored in underground holes lined with cow-skins, the preparation and drinking through a pipe, the chief manufacture at New Villarica near the mountains of Maracayu at about 25 degrees 25 minutes south, and the hundred thousand arobes sometimes sent to Peru alone. PA266, the reduction economy: the women's weekly ration of wool and cotton to be returned by Saturday night, the plantations of the herb made everywhere in the reductions from plants first brought from the canton of Maracayu and little degenerated, the trade authorized by the decree of Philip V and censured by some persons, and the forward reference to the grant of fire arms. PA373, the argument of Book VII, which promises the neophytes \"allowed the use of fire-arms; entirely defeat, under the command of the governor of Paraguay, a large body of the Mamelus\", and the bishop of the Assumption who \"abuses his spiritual power\". PA377, the reductions of St Charles and the Apostles abandoned in January 1638 though able to defend themselves, and the skirmish of thirteen hundred christians who won \"a compleat victory; but, unhappily, they knew not how to improve it\". PA382, twelve thousand Indians collected out of reach of surprise, the chiefs' representation that without equal arms they must become a prey in the end, and the maxim of state in Spain against arming Indians. PA383, the distinction between involuntary and voluntary submission, the reductions as the only barrier of Paraguay and the Plata against the Portuguese, and the governors prejudiced by men \"from an unwillingness to see any of the natives become christians, but such as they could make slaves of\". PA384, Boroa's instructions to Montoya, the proposal to the royal council of the Indies, the objection that Indians as well armed as Spaniards might revolt, and the terms offered - arms kept by the missionaries, surplus deposited at the Assumption, bought with alms so as not to cost the treasury a farthing, ex-soldier lay brothers sent from Chili to drill. PA385, the King granting everything asked and refusing every later proposal to revoke it, and the summary that \"there has arisen among these Neophytes a militia, which, for more than an age past, has been the greatest resource of their sovereign in this part of South America, against both foreign and domestic enemies; and which, notwithstanding, it does not cost him a single farthing to pay or to maintain\", together with the author's satisfaction that victory had made them \"more submissive and docile\"." }, { "id": "southey-history-of-brazil-vol2-1817", "title": "History of Brazil, part the second", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=5FIOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA322", "publisher": "Robert Southey; London, Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1817", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "A Protestant English poet-historian's compilation, read as page scans on 2026-08-12; the running foot \"VOL. II.\" is visible at PA321. It is a witness of a useful kind here because it is not of the party - Southey has no brief for the Society - but it is not an independent one either, and the pages say so in their own margins: the notes beside this narrative read \"Techo, 102. Charlevoix, 447-458\" and \"Techo, 104. Charlevoix, 451. Azara, 1, 81\", so on the arming of the Guaranies he is largely reworking the same Jesuit sources. Pages opened and read 2026-08-12. PA321, the twelve thousand converts refixed between the Parana and the Uruguay, the Indians' own entreaty to be \"provided with fire-arms, to protect themselves and their wives and children\", the Spanish maxim against arming subject Indians and the argument that it ceased to apply to men \"not in the relation of slaves to masters, but of men enjoying the same benefits of civil and religious institutions\", and the despatch of Montoya to Madrid and Diaz Tano to Rome by the provincial Diego de Boroa. PA322, the representation to the Council of the Indies, the promise that the arms should stay in the custody of the missionaries and be delivered out only in time of danger and that the Company would defray the whole expence, the brethren who had served in the army before entering the Order as instructors, and the royal answer: the Paulistas who \"had carried away more than thirty thousand slaves from Guayra\" declared contrary to all laws human and divine and cognizable by the Holy Office, the enslaved ordered set at liberty, converts in Guayra, Tape, Parana and Uruguay declared immediate vassals of the Crown and not consignable to any individual for personal service, and their tribute fixed but deferred to 1649. PA323, the effect within a year: the two boys who burnt their bonds free, Governor D. Pedro de Lugo intercepting the raiders with four thousand Indians, the superior Diego de Alfaro killed by a musket ball, the Paulistas cut to pieces or taken, and the prisoners reprimanded and sent home rather than executed. PA324 and PA325, the Lake Ybera expedition, in which \"Romero joined him with a body of disciplined Indians, better suited for such warfare than the Spaniards\", and Urban VIII's censures against all who should enslave Indians. PA418 and PA419, the counter-case of 1644 at Asumpcion: Bishop Cardenas telling the assembled city that \"the armed Indians of the Jesuits had plundered Yaguaron, and were on their way to plunder Asumpcion\", the insurrection averted only because the townspeople feared the Guaranies \"advancing in perfect discipline, and by the Governor's order\", and the hundred Guaranies ordered into the city, half to the Jesuit College and half to the Governor's residence, under whose protection the bishop was deposed and deported." }, { "id": "gawron-gzella-yerba-mate-2021", "title": "Yerba Mate - A Long but Current History", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8622869/", "publisher": "Anna Gawron-Gzella, Justyna Chanaj-Kaczmarek and Judyta Cielecka-Piontek; Nutrients 13(11):3706, 2021; doi 10.3390/nu13113706", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Open-access pharmacognosy review, read 2026-08-12. Cited here only for its short historical frame, which is thin and carries at least one error of its own: it dates the dissolution of the Society to 1775, where the expulsion from the Spanish dominions was 1767 and the suppression 1773. Used for three statements - that the Guarani were the first to use the plant in its natural habitat, that the Jesuits \"started to professionally cultivate and trade in the leaves\" from about 1670, and that after the dissolution \"the plantations run by the monks were destroyed and became wild\" and the art of cultivating the plant \"was resumed only in the middle of the 20th century\". Reliability is set at 0.7 because the historical section is unreferenced background to a chemical review." }, { "id": "comolli-yerba-mate-agroforestry-2025", "title": "A sustainable integrated agroforestry system", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12598783/", "publisher": "L. R. Comolli, E. Schegg, C. Infuleski and others; Frontiers in Plant Science 16:1635422, 2025; doi 10.3389/fpls.2025.1635422", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Open-access agronomy paper on yerba mate agroforestry, read 2026-08-12. Cited for its statements that the Jesuits, from settlements begun in 1609, \"domesticated the tree, established plantations, and developed the commercially viable product\"; that modern cultivation \"followed monoculture practices on fertile lands previously cleared of native forests\", dating from the early twentieth century and typically planted on a rectangular grid of about 1,110 plants per hectare; and that Ilex paraguariensis \"is a native tree species in the forests of this region, producing foliage in the shade of consociated tree species by nature\". A modern agronomic paper is a strong witness for what the plant needs and a weak one for seventeenth-century dates, which is why the historical claims it supports here are held at lower confidence." }, { "id": "alaman-disertaciones-1844-tomo-i", "title": "Disertaciones sobre la historia de la República Megicana desde la época de la conquista que los españoles hicieron a fines del siglo XV y principios del XVI de las islas y continente americano hasta la independencia, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=LdtkAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA261", "publisher": "Por D. Lucas Alamán; Mégico, impreso en papel megicano de la fábrica de los Sres. Benfield y Marshall, en la imprenta de D. José Mariano Lara, calle de la Palma núm. 4, 1844. Full-view digitisation of the Vienna Nationalbibliothek copy (shelfmark 569211-B), Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The 1844 sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-12. The tier is for the printed volume, which was opened and read; the reliability is set low for the tier because this is a nineteenth-century historian narrating sixteenth-century events at three centuries' remove, and a partisan one - Alamán was a conservative statesman and an apologist for the quality of Spanish colonial administration, and the fourth disertación is explicitly an argument about the good governors sent to remedy the bad. He also had privileged access: he administered the estate of the dukes of Terranova y Monteleone, the Cortés heirs, and cites documents from their archive kept at the hospital de Jesús in Mexico City. Pages opened and read - PP5, the half-title; PP7, the title page giving TOMO I and the 1844 imprint; PA261-PA267 on the second Audiencia, its junta and Ramírez de Fuenleal; and PA266 on the colegio de Santiago and Antonio Valeriano. Claims resting on this source alone are held at or below 0.75." }, { "id": "mendieta-historia-eclesiastica-indiana-libro-iii", "title": "Historia eclesiástica indiana, obra escrita á fines del siglo XVI — libro III, the pages on the president Sebastián Ramírez de Fuenleal and the reassignment of the doctrinas among the orders", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=e0Aa0Glxa6UC&pg=PA252", "publisher": "Fray Gerónimo de Mendieta, written at the end of the sixteenth century; first published by Joaquín García Icazbalceta, Mexico, Antigua Librería, 1870. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Page 252 of the 1870 printing, read as a page scan on 2026-08-12; the same digitised volume as the entry scoped to libro IV, registered separately because the passage and the book are different. Mendieta's own sixteenth-century text at one remove, through Icazbalceta's setting from a manuscript. The witness is a Franciscan writing about a president who favoured his order and about doctrinas taken from it, so the reliability sits below the tier: he supplies both the compliment - Ramírez de Fuenleal as verdadero padre y aficionado á los indios - and, in the same passage, the towns' objection to what the president did, which is why the passage is usable for the counterpoint as well as the praise." }, { "id": "manin-2018-mesoamerican-turkeys", "title": "Diversity of management strategies in Mesoamerican turkeys: archaeological, isotopic and genetic evidence", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5792941/", "publisher": "Royal Society Open Science 5:171613 (2018), The Royal Society. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Manin, Corona-M, Alexander, Craig, Thornton, Yang, Richards and Speller; doi 10.1098/rsos.171613. Read 2026-08-14. Source of the Mexican sample (55 archaeological turkey remains from 14 sites, 53 of them large enough for isotopic and genetic analysis), of the three taxa identified (M. g. mexicana, M. g. gallopavo, M. ocellata), of the isotopic range from wild foraging through mixed feeding to heavy provisioning with maize or other C4 plants, of the absence of shared maternal haplotypes between Mesoamerica and the Southwest USA, and of the paper's own statement that the chronology of human intervention and the number of wild progenitor populations remain unanswered." }, { "id": "speller-2010-southwest-turkey-adna", "title": "Ancient mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals complexity of indigenous North American turkey domestication", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2840336/", "publisher": "Camilla F. Speller, Brian M. Kemp, Scott D. Wyatt, Cara Monroe, William D. Lipe, Ursula M. Arndt and Dongya Y. Yang; Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107(7):2807-2812 (2010), doi 10.1073/pnas.0909724107. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Peer-reviewed ancient-DNA study of 149 turkey bones and 29 coprolites from 38 archaeological sites dated 200 BC to AD 1800. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-12 and the sentences quoted were located in the article body rather than in a search summary. Used for the two independent domestications, for the exclusion of M. g. gallopavo as progenitor of the Southwestern breed, and for the two sentences on the transfer - that only the Mesoamerican stock survived as domesticates, that Mexican turkeys were transported to Europe in the early sixteenth century, and that European varieties were imported back to the Atlantic seaboard in the eighteenth century. Those transfer sentences are introductory statements citing the earlier literature, not results of this study, and the claims built on them are held at or below 0.8." }, { "id": "padilla-jacobo-2018-mexican-turkeys", "title": "Evolutionary history of Mexican domesticated and wild Meleagris gallopavo", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5905111/", "publisher": "Gabriela Padilla-Jacobo, Horacio Cano-Camacho, Rigoberto López-Zavala, María E. Cornejo-Pérez and María G. Zavala-Páramo; Genetics Selection Evolution 50:19 (2018), doi 10.1186/s12711-018-0388-8. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Peer-reviewed phylogeographic study of Mexican domesticated and wild turkeys, including backyard flocks from the five physiographic regions of Michoacán, four domesticated birds from Izabal in Guatemala and nine of the commercial Bronze line. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-12. Used for the two dominant maternal haplotypes shared with the commercial line, for the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt as the region of capture for domestication, and for the six backyard haplotypes not previously reported in the species. Reliability is set below the other two genetics papers because the sample is regional - the authors themselves call for extension to six further states before the conclusions are treated as national - and because the article's own historical sentence about prehispanic groups is garbled in the printing and is not used here." }, { "id": "bernini-2021-italian-heritage-turkeys", "title": "Genetic Diversity and Identification of Homozygosity-Rich Genomic Regions in Seven Italian Heritage Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) Breeds", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8470100/", "publisher": "Francesco Bernini, Alessandro Bagnato, Stefano P. Marelli, Luisa Zaniboni, Silvia Cerolini and Maria G. Strillacci; Genes 12(9):1342 (2021), doi 10.3390/genes12091342. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Peer-reviewed genomic study of seven Italian heritage turkey breeds. Read as full text on 2026-08-12. Used only for one sentence in its introduction - that after the Spanish conquerors brought turkeys to Europe the birds spread rapidly across the continent from the sixteenth century. That sentence is an unattributed summary of the received account with no date more precise than the century and no source named in the passage, which is exactly why the claim it supports is held at 0.7 and paired with a second paper making the same statement." }, { "id": "villagra-historia-nueva-mexico-1610", "title": "Historia de la Nueva Mexico, del Capitan Gaspar de Villagra, dirigida al Rey D. Felipe nuestro senor Tercero deste nombre", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=bTtOAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "Luys Martinez Grande, Alcala de Henares, 1610, at the cost of Baptista Lopez, bookseller. Copy of the Oesterreichische Nationalbibliothek, digitised by Google, full view", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "First edition of the earliest printed book devoted to New Mexico, read as page scans on 2026-08-12: the title page; the tassa of Diego Gonzalez de Villarroel, Madrid, 27 April 1610, giving thirty-eight pliegos at three and a half maravedis; two leaves of the table of cantos, covering Cantos XVIII to XXVII; folio 1, the opening of Canto I; folios 208 and 209, the head of Canto XXV and the prose \"Repuesta del Comissario, y Religiosos\" on the requirements of a just war; folio 218, the Acoma council in Canto XXVI; folio 287 with the commendatory verses; and the Alcala colophon. An eyewitness who was also the expedition's procurador and a claimant for reward, so a self-interested witness; tiered primary as an original imprint, and read against itself rather than taken at its word." }, { "id": "benavides-memorial-museo-nacional-1900", "title": "Historia de la Nueva Mexico (Mexico, 1900): appendices printing documents on Gaspar Perez de Villagra compiled by Jose Fernando Ramirez, the Memorial of Fray Alonso de Benavides, and unpublished papers from the Fischer collection", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=7rg7AQAAMAAJ", "publisher": "Imprenta del Museo Nacional, Mexico, 1900, 324 pages. Digitised by Google, full view", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-12: the half-titles of the second and third appendices, the opening of the Benavides Memorial with the petition of Fray Juan de Santander and the royal cedula to the Marques de Cerralvo, and the Memorial's pages 23, 29, 36 and 37 on Acoma, on turquoise and cotton mantas, on the Apaches de Navajo and on the alum-quarry wars. Registered secondary and not primary because the Memorial here is a nineteenth-century reset reprint of a seventeenth-century printing, with no claim of facsimile fidelity found on a page opened; the volume's first and third appendices print documents from manuscript, the third expressly headed as unpublished, but nothing in this instance is bound to that stronger status." }, { "id": "gazetas-de-mexico-1794-tomo-sexto", "title": "Gazetas de México, compendio de noticias de Nueva España, del año de 1794 — Tomo Sexto", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=csyuPK3XA3UC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Por Don Manuel Antonio Valdés, dedicated to the viceroy Juan Vicente de Güemes Pacheco de Padilla, Conde de Revilla Gigedo; México, en la Imprenta de los Herederos de Don Felipe de Zúñiga y Ontiveros, con licencia y privilegio, 1794. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The bound annual volume of the Mexico City gazette for 1794. Title page (PP5) opened and read on 2026-08-12, giving the wording above; the internal dating was checked independently of the catalogue entry, the running head at page 621 reading \"Tom. VI. Núm. 75. GAZETA DE MEXICO DEL SABADO 8 DE NOVIEMBRE DE 1794\" and page 237 carrying a number of 6 May 1794. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-12: PP5 (title page), PA10 (Veracruz hospital return for 1793), PA12 (San Andrés return with the computed case-fatality rate), PA21 (Real Hospicio de Pobres return, with the Havana price current inserted by the viceroy's order), PA223 to PA226 (three bandos, the second being the renewal of the 1777 order on treating the wounded, with the 1793 order to the Protomedicato quoted in full), PA363 (the Cádiz hospital return), PA407 (Balmis in Mexico, and the royal order sending him for agave and begonia roots) and PA647 (the transfer of the bones of Cortés to the church of the Hospital de la Purísima Concepción y Jesús Nazareno). Reliability is set below the tier because the institutional returns it prints are furnished by the institutions themselves and no outside audit is claimed, and because the volume is published with licence and privilege and dedicated to the serving viceroy." }, { "id": "constituciones-ninos-expositos-mexico-1775", "title": "Constituciones, que para el mejor govierno, y direccion de la Real Casa del Señor S. Joseph de Niños Expósitos de esta Ciudad de México formó ... Alonso Nuñez de Haro, y Peralta ..., aprobó el Rey Nuestro Señor", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=BF6y2cavZfUC", "publisher": "México, en la Imprenta del Lic. D. Joseph de Jauregui, Calle de S. Bernardo, 1775. 74 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The printed constitutions of the foundling house of Mexico City, drawn up by the archbishop Alonso Núñez de Haro y Peralta and approved by royal cédula. Pages opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-12: PP5 (title page, giving the imprint above), PP7 to PP9 (the royal cédula and the archbishop's own preamble, which states that the house was founded by his predecessor in the see and had until then been maintained at the cost of the mitra and of pious alms), PA1 (Constitution I, on the patronage and the endowment assigned by the Junta Superior de Temporalidades), PA2 (Constitutions II and III), PA6 (the treasurer's books), PA7 (Constitution VII, on entering the reception of each child), PA8 (Constitution VIII, on baptism), PA10 (Constitution XI, on the ama mayor), PA12 (the end of Constitution XI and Constitution XII, on the resident wet nurses), PA13 (Constitutions XIII and XIV, on the nurses who reared children outside the house), PA20 (Constitution XXII, on the children who have no wage), PA25 and PA26 (the end of Constitution XXVII and Constitution XXVIII, on those who die), and PT1 (folio 56, the viceroy Bucareli's cúmplase of 31 October 1774 and the note that the cédula was entered in the books of the office of government and war on 8 November 1774). Reliability is set slightly below the tier because the volume is a rulebook approved by the crown: it is first-hand evidence of what was ordered and of the dates of approval, and no evidence at all of compliance, of numbers admitted or of deaths, none of which it prints." }, { "id": "ordenanza-alcaldes-de-barrio-oaxaca-1796", "title": "Ordenanza para el Establecimiento é instruccion de los Alcaldes de Barrio de la ciudad de Oaxaca, capital de la provincia de su nombre, formada de orden del Exmo. Señor Marqués de Branciforte, virrey de esta Nueva España", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=L15FAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "México, por Don Mariano de Zúñiga y Ontiveros, calle del Espíritu Santo, año de 1796. 36 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The printed ordinance establishing neighbourhood magistrates in the city of Oaxaca. Pages opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-12: PP3 (the verso of the title leaf, through which the title page reads in reverse, giving the title and the imprint above), PA1 to PA5 (the preface and the viceroy Branciforte's superior order of 24 October 1794 to the intendant of Oaxaca, followed by articles 1 to 3), PA10, PA12 (articles 14 to 16), PA14 (articles 20 to 23), PA16 (articles 28 to 31), PA17 (the end of article 31 and articles 32 to 34), PA18 (articles 35 to 37), PA20 (articles 41 to 43), PA22 (articles 48 to 50), PA24, PA25 (articles 56 to 60) and PA26 (the close, dated Oaxaca 18 December 1795 and signed Mora). Articles 4 to 13 and 17 to 19, 24 to 27, 38 to 40, 44 to 47 and 51 to 55 were not opened; the boundary descriptions of the quarters run through the early ones. Reliability is set slightly below the tier for the same reason as any rulebook: it is first-hand evidence of what the intendant ordered and of the chain of command that produced it, and it is not evidence that any of it was carried out, a limit the ordinance itself acknowledges when it records that earlier orders against the tepache houses had failed." }, { "id": "diario-de-mexico-1805-tomo-i", "title": "Diario de México, tomo I (1805)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=xTREAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP9", "publisher": "Con licencia del superior govierno. En la Imprenta de Doña María Fernández Jáuregui, calle de Santo Domingo, México, año de 1805. Full-view digitisation of the New York Public Library copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The first volume of the Mexico City daily, 432 pages, dedicated to the viceroy José de Iturrigaray. Pages opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-12: PP9 (the title page, giving the dedication, the licence formula and the printer - note that the Google Books catalogue record for this same volume names the office of Mariano José de Zúñiga y Ontiveros instead, and the object reports the title page); PP11 and PP12 (the prospectus \"Idea del diario economico de Mejico\" - the plan of contents, the necrology article, the daily periodicity, the half-sheet format, the half-real price, the twelve named points of sale, the locked intake boxes emptied every afternoon, the subscription tariff of fourteen reales a month with home delivery and free supplements and index, the out-of-city terms, and the exclusion of \"materias de la alta politica, y de govierno\" together with the undertakings towards the official gazette and the Almacén de Noticias, whose regulation is quoted at article 24); PA1 and PA2 (the index of tomo I, listing the matter of the first fifty-six numbers); PA5, PA6, PA9 and PA10 (the printed subscriber lists, including corporate subscribers, a woman subscriber, and the out-of-town subscribers with their places); PA144 (the lost-property notices and the monthly return of the parish of San Miguel - 32 baptisms, 4 marriages, 29 burials and 176 vaccinated for October - with the request to the other parish priests). Reliability is set below the tier because the paper is a licensed commercial publication describing its own intentions and terms: it is decisive evidence of what it promised and printed, not of what it achieved. The volume's reformed orthography (\"qe\", \"abrá\", \"Méjico\", \"ecsiste\", \"necrolójia\") is reproduced in quotations as printed." }, { "id": "anales-junta-de-fomento-habana-1861", "title": "Anales y memorias de la Real Junta de Fomento y de la Real Sociedad Económica (Havana)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=zH9aAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Real Junta de Fomento y Real Sociedad Económica de La Habana. Full-view digitisation of the New York Public Library copy, Google Books; catalogue date 1861, 738 pages", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The annual organ of the Havana Economic Society and the Junta de Fomento. Pages opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-12: PA1 (the half-title); PA7 (the opening of a biographical memoir of Luis de las Casas, captain general from 7 July 1790, with its chapter argument naming the periodical, the Sociedad Patriótica, the library, the Guía de Forasteros and the Casa de Beneficencia - read for context only and cited nowhere, since it is a eulogistic essay); RA2-PA217 and RA2-PA218 (the annual report of the industry section, signed by the secretary Manuel Martínez on 18 December 1862, on patent-privilege applications and on titles issued to master artisans, and the heading and first months of the botanical garden return); RA2-PA219 (the closing months of that return, the shipments to Madrid and to the captain general's estate, the note on the railing, the scientific labelling, the medicinal plants served to the public and the plants supplied to the university's botany class, signed by the director Fernando Layunta on 31 December 1862); RA2-PA221, RA2-PA224 and RA2-PA225 (the articles \"Las escuelas gratuitas\" by J. I. Rodríguez - the 285 free or public schools, the footnote crediting the published censuses and the works of Pelayo González for the figures of 150,000 children of school age and 17,459 taught, the 181 private establishments, the 82 girls' schools and the 5,294 white and 127 girls of colour, the curriculum argument and the arithmetic of 14,250 pupils a year). Two cautions carried into every claim bound to this source: the volume is a serial whose catalogue date, 1861, is earlier than the December 1862 signatures on the reports read; and the school figures come from an advocacy article inside the institution's own publication, which is why the counts sit at 0.85 and the interpretation lower." }, { "id": "icazbalceta-zumarraga-1881", "title": "Don fray Juan de Zumárraga, primer obispo y arzobispo de México", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=pmITAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA227", "publisher": "Joaquín García Icazbalceta; Antigua Librería de Andrade y Morales, México, 1881. Digitised full view, read as page scans", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "Nineteenth-century biography, 682 pages, by the Mexican bibliographer who edited Motolinía and Mendieta. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-12: 35 (the Protector appointment presented to the first Audiencia and its reply), 87 (the 1548 declaration on the erection of the chapter), 121, 149-150 (the title of apostolic inquisitor, the trial and burning of a lord of Texcoco reported by Suárez de Peralta, the Inquisitor General's reprimand recorded as nº 76 of the cathedral inventory, the order that the Holy Office not proceed against Indians, and the establishment of the tribunal by Moya de Contreras on 12 September 1571), 209-210 (the schools for indigenous girls, their foundation and their collapse), 224 (the press negotiated with Juan Cromberger and the cédula of Talavera of 6 June 1542), 227-231 (the Hospital del Amor de Dios, its royal patronage of 29 November 1540, the foundation instrument of 13 May 1541, and the auction of three of its houses for the bishop's tithe debt), 310 and 325 (the controversy with Jesús Sánchez over the destruction of Mexican antiquities, the chronology of eighteen witnesses, Pedro de Gante's letter of 27 June 1529, and a damaged codex quoted in the friars' first person). The author is an admirer writing a defence and argues in his own voice that the executed cacique deserved capital punishment; his disposition is stated inside the objects that cite him, and interpretive claims drawn from him are held below 0.9." }, { "id": "icazbalceta-zumarraga-1881-apendice", "title": "Apéndice de documentos to Don fray Juan de Zumárraga (Documento 21, carta de los obispos, and Documento 27, carta del Sr. Zumárraga de 17 de abril de 1540)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=pmITAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA137", "publisher": "Joaquín García Icazbalceta (ed.); Antigua Librería de Andrade y Morales, México, 1881. Separately paginated documentary appendix, read as page scans", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-12", "notes": "The appendix prints sixteenth-century documents with their own pagination (pids RA1-*). Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-12: 94 and 97-98, the joint letter of the bishops to the Emperor, which states that the bishop of Mexico keeps casas de doctrina for daughters of the naturales in eight or nine principal towns, asks that every diocese have at least one principal house like an enclosed monastery from which teachers could go out, and says the work cannot go forward without royal aid or the alms of the town; and 137-138, the bishop's letter of 17 April 1540, in which he writes that he has built a large house where the sick of bubas and other contagious patients are received and cured, whom nowhere would take in, not even the hospital of the Marqués, and that many were dying on the roads and in the towns of the Indians. Registered primary for the transcribed documents only; the editor's footnotes on the same pages - including his note that the 1540 passage can be punctuated two ways - are his own and are cited to the biography id, except where an object says explicitly that it is reporting the editor's note on the document." }, { "id": "odriozola-documentos-literarios-peru-t3-cosme-bueno", "title": "Disertaciones geográficas y científicas del doctor Cosme Bueno, in Coleccion de documentos literarios del Peru, tomo tercero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=HVvGwzUrUOgC&pg=PA11", "publisher": "Cosme Bueno, texts of the 1760s-1790s; collected and arranged by Manuel de Odriozola, Lima, Imprenta del Estado, calle de la Rifa núm. 58, 1872. Full-view digitisation, Google Books, read as page scans", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The author's own texts - the province-by-province description of the viceroyalty of Peru and the dissertations that accompanied it in his almanacs - in a Lima collected printing of 1872. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-13: PP1 (title page: \"DOCUMENTOS LITERARIOS DEL PERU colectados y arreglados por el coronel de caballeria de ejercito, fundador de la independencia Manuel de Odriozola. Tomo tercero. Lima, Imprenta del Estado, calle de la Rifa núm. 58. 1872\"), 3 (the editor's advertencia, which states that he begins the tome with the Disertaciones and that a noticia of the author's life goes at their head), 11 (the opening of the description, with the extent of the kingdom in degrees and leagues and the 96 provinces in three audiencias), 73-75 (the province of Angaraes, the villa of Huancavelica and its quicksilver mine, and the opening of Castrovireyna), 217 (the Patagonian coast in latitudes, the frigate San Antonio's survey of 1746-47 against the river invented in the account of Anson's voyage, and the Falkland or Malvinas islands under the government of Buenos Aires), 260 (the closing paragraph on how the descriptions were obtained and why they took so long), 261-263 and 275-277 (the Disertacion sobre el arte de volar entire at its head, its mechanical argument and its close), 339 (a numbered dissertation on the air, citing Amontons, Hero, Nollet, Schott and Kircher), 361-362 (the index of the tome). Reliability sits below the tier for two reasons stated inside the objects that cite it: this is a reprint made roughly a century after the almanac sheets it draws on, and the volume prints no date, place or signature at the head of the individual dissertations, so their dating rests on internal evidence." }, { "id": "moreno-elogio-cosme-bueno", "title": "Elogio del doctor don Cosme Bueno, signed Dr. D. Gabriel Moreno, in Coleccion de documentos literarios del Peru, tomo tercero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=HVvGwzUrUOgC&pg=PA5", "publisher": "Gabriel Moreno, written for the first almanac published after Cosme Bueno's death of 11 March 1798; reprinted by Manuel de Odriozola, Lima, Imprenta del Estado, 1872. Full-view digitisation, Google Books, read as page scans", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "A contemporary eulogy, six pages, read as scans on 2026-08-13 at pages 5-10 of the volume and signed on page 10 \"Dr. D. Gabriel Moreno\". It is the source for the dates of Cosme Bueno's life - born at Belver in Aragon on 9 April 1711, in Peru from 1730, doctorate 1750, chair of mathematics and the office of cosmografo mayor in 1758, admitted by the Sociedad Medica de Madrid in 1768 and the Bascongada in 1784, dead on 11 March 1798 at 87 - and for the description of the almanacs, half dissertations and half provincial descriptions. Reliability is set well below the tier because the piece is a funeral eulogy by a self-declared disciple who says he lost in him an oracle he consulted continually: its judgements of priority and standing are the author's, and are carried in the objects at confidence 0.7 or below. It is also the source for the unflattering details it does not suppress, which are quoted as such." }, { "id": "caulin-historia-nueva-andalucia-1779", "title": "Historia coro-graphica natural y evangelica de la nueva Andalucia, provincias de Cumaná, Guayana y vertientes del rio Orinoco", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=3U2UgK2GY50C&printsec=frontcover", "publisher": "Fr. Antonio Caulín; Madrid: Juan de San Martín, 1779", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Full-view digitisation of the 1779 Madrid printing, 530 pages; page images opened and read 2026-08-13 (f. 11, 65, 71, 72, 75, 76, 80, 88, 370, 371). Caulín was a Franciscan Observant of the Píritu missions present on the Orinoco during the years of the Real Expedición de Límites, and writes in the first person at f. 371. Used for: the expedition's commissioners Iturriaga and Solano and Solano's title of cosmógrafo de su Magestad (ff. 65, 71); the statement that the book's latitudes are Solano's observations of 1756, adopted \"como las mas exactas... por la providencia de los mas finos instrumentos\" (f. 71); the passage of nine champanes through the Atures rapid against Gumilla's printed statement, with Caulín's two explanations of the disagreement (ff. 71-72); \"Sabida ya la verdadera comunicacion del Orinóco con el Rio Negro, que lo conduce al Marañón... retrocediendo por el Casiquiare\" (f. 80); San Carlos and San Felipe on the Río Negro with a fortín \"que sirve de barrera à nuestros Dominios... y de frontera à los Portugueses\" (f. 80 note); the Tuamini and Pimichín portage that cut an express from fifty or sixty days to ten (f. 76 note); the reductions of Guaipunábi \"à la efectiva dominacion del Rey\" and the destruction and rebuilding of San Fernando de Atabapo (ff. 72, 76 notes); the flight of the settled Indians on 8 May and their partial return by February 1758 (f. 371); the Capuchin reassignment above Maypures (f. 11 note); and the Cumanagoto lengua general of the Píritu missions with the language shift of people brought down from the hills (f. 88). It is a missionary's history of his own province's conversions and is partisan on motive and cause - it explains the flight by Dutch instigation and the devil - so interpretive statements taken from it are carried below 0.9 here and the tier reflects that it is a contemporary participant's printing, not that it is disinterested." }, { "id": "yangues-principios-cummanagota-1683-platzmann-1888", "title": "Principios y reglas de la lengua cummanagota, general en varias naciones, que habitan en la provincia de Cummana en las Indias Occidentales (Burgos, Iuan de Viar, 1683), reproduced as volume II of Algunas obras raras sobre la lengua cumanagota", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=xSUZrLvd4pEC&printsec=frontcover", "publisher": "Manuel de Yangües, with a dictionary by Matías Ruiz Blanco; reproduced by Julio Platzmann, Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1888", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Registered secondary although the volume calls itself an \"EDICION FACSIMILAR\", because the reproduction is only partly photographic: page images opened and read 2026-08-13 (PP7, PP11, PP13, f. 1, 4, 5, 71 and the \"Al lector\") show the 1683 title page and the woodblock ornaments reproduced from the original but the text reset in modern type preserving the old orthography, the folio numbers, the signatures and the catchwords. This is the same treatment the corpus gives the 1898 León reprint of Gilberti. Used for: the full 1683 title page naming Yangües as author and Matías Ruiz Blanco as author of the dictionary bound behind the grammar; Platzmann's half-title and imprint; the adoption of \"las diuisiones, que contiene el Arte de Antonio\" (f. 5); the postposed case particles and the examples Pata, Patameenan, Vmpatàr, EKereyptar, Cozeder and the dative uya (f. 1); the author's statement that the pronouns are \"la mas obscura, y dificil de todas las de este arte\" (f. 4); the pronoun list and the unexplained first-person-plural doublet Amnauya / Kuyacom, Amnapoy / Kepoycom (f. 5); the \"Advertencias para la recta inteligencia de el Diccionario\" and the start of the dictionary of \"los Indios Cummanagotos, y Palenques\" (ff. 71-73); and the prologue's statement that the language is \"vnico medio para cumplir tu vocacion\". Reliability is set at 0.8 for the reset text rather than higher: the reproduction is careful and states its own method, but it is not the sheet from Juan de Viar's press." }, { "id": "perez-de-ribas-triumphos-1645", "title": "Historia de los triumphos de nuestra santa fee entre gentes las mas barbaras, y fieras del nueuo Orbe: conseguidos por los Soldados de la Milicia de la Compañia de Iesvs en las Missiones de la Provincia de Nueua-España", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=FHZkAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Andres Perez de Ribas, Provincial en la Nueua-España; En Madrid, por Alonso de Paredes, junto a los Estudios de la Compañia, 1645", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The 1645 first edition, read as page scans on 2026-08-13 from a full-view digitisation of 820 imaged leaves. Pages opened and read: PP7 the title page and imprint; PA16 the head of Libro I chapter V on idolatry, sorceries and the curanderos, with the note on load-carrying and on horses bought from the Spaniards; PA20 the inquiry among the elders about origins, the observation that the languages of Cinaloa share radical words with Mexican, the northern land-passage speculation and the name Yoris given to the Spaniards; PA21 the missionaries learning languages without Arte or Bocabulario and the judgement that these languages keep uniform rules; PA98 the flood at the Guaçaue pueblos and the passage justifying compelled labour; PA286 the opening of Libro V chapter II on the cause of the Hiaqui wars, with the Hiaqui dress and ornament described on the same page; PA290 the battle in which twenty-two soldiers were surrounded; PA294 the Hiaqui celebration of victory and the tactic against horses; PA299 and PA300 the embassy and the terms of the peace. PA279 was opened and belongs to the Mayo section, not the Hiaqui one. The author is the Jesuit provincial of New Spain writing his own order's history, dedicated to Felipe IV: an interested witness whose figures for enemy numbers are his own side's, which is why claims resting on them are held at or below 0.8. No year for the Hiaqui campaign appears on any page read here." }, { "id": "venegas-burriel-noticia-california-1757-t1", "title": "Noticia de la California, y de su conquista temporal, y espiritual hasta el tiempo presente, sacada de la historia manuscrita, formada en Mexico año de 1739 por el Padre Miguel Venegas, de la Compañia de Jesus. Tomo primero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=M3xgAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Con licencia, en Madrid: en la Imprenta de la Viuda de Manuel Fernandez, y del Supremo Consejo de la Inquisicion, 1757", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Tomo primero of the 1757 Madrid printing, read as page scans on 2026-08-13. Pages opened and read: PP5 the title page, which states the work was drawn from a manuscript history of 1739 by Miguel Venegas and from other notices and relations, and that maps are published with it; PA64 the language geography of the peninsula, the caution that ethnonyms are relative to the speaker and the Loreto terms Edu, Monqui and Laymones; PA104 the cosmology of the Perícues and of the Loreto nation, printed as a quoted fragment. PA63 has no signed page image in this digitisation and could not be opened, so the head of the enumeration of nations is not read here. The volume is a compilation edited in Madrid from Jesuit manuscripts: primary for the 1757 printing and for the fragments it transcribes, not a first-hand observation by the man whose name is on the title page." }, { "id": "venegas-burriel-noticia-california-1757-t3", "title": "Noticia de la California, y de su conquista temporal, y espiritual hasta el tiempo presente. Tomo tercero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=FpFPAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Con licencia, en Madrid: en la Imprenta de la Viuda de Manuel Fernandez, y del Supremo Consejo de la Inquisicion, 1757", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Tomo tercero of the same 1757 printing, 465 imaged leaves, read as page scans on 2026-08-13. Pages opened and read: PP7 the title page, which carries the same formula as tomo primero and the volume number; PA341, inside Part IV, Apendice VII, printing within quotation marks a relation attributed to the Almirante Fonte with navigational detail of a Rio de los Reyes and its tides. Registered separately from tomo primero so that claims about the appendix do not borrow the ethnographic volume's weight. Only two pages of this volume were read, and nothing here establishes what the editor concluded about the Fonte relation." }, { "id": "funes-ensayo-historia-civil-1816-t1", "title": "Ensayo de la historia civil del Paraguay, Buenos-Ayres y Tucuman — Tomo Primero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=jkVAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA323", "publisher": "Gregorio Funes, dean of the cathedral of Cordova. Buenos-Ayres, Imprenta de M. J. Gandarillas y socios, 1816; 418 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.65, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-13 through the anchored click3 route; the volume has a working search layer. Title page transcribed from PP13 - \"ENSAYO DE LA HISTORIA CIVIL DEL PARAGUAY, BUENOS-AYRES Y TUCUMAN, escrita por el doctor D. Gregorio Funes, dean de la Santa Iglesia Catedral de Cordova. TOMO PRIMERO. BUENOS-AYRES: Imprenta de M. J. Gandarillas y socios (1816)\"; PP9 carries the half title only. Registered at secondary and reliability well below the tier, for reasons visible on the pages themselves - Funes is writing two centuries after the events he narrates here, he is a partisan of the Rio de la Plata revolution writing in its second year, he judges as he narrates, and he does not print the ordinances he describes nor name an archive for them. He is usable precisely because he prints the case against his own position at length. Pages opened and read - PA316, the chapter argument of Libro II cap. XIV; PA317, the Villa Rica lieutenant who reduced the mission Indians to captivity and the missionaries exiled for protesting; PA320, Hernandarias returning to the government, the 1601 grant of it in propiedad, the expedition towards the strait of Magellan and his capture; PA321, his escape and counter-attack, the Chaco nations, the two lost expeditions to the Parana and the Uruguay, and the tyranny of the Spaniards that made the reduced Indians of the Guayra desert their encomiendas; PA322, the arrival of the visitador Francisco de Alfaro and the ordinances that abolished a personal service \"que no distaba mucho de una verdadera esclavitud\"; PA323, the date of 1612, the reduction of encomiendas to the usufruct of the tribute due to the crown, and the encomenderos' resentment; PA324, Felix de Azara quoted at length from \"Tom. 2 de su viage cap. 12\" against the reform, including the suspicion that the Jesuits dictated Alfaro's conduct; PA325, Funes answering Azara and conceding Azara's own account of Irala's encomiendas; PA361, the campaign to frustrate the reform and the threat to governor Ribera in his juicio de residencia; PA362, Ribera's removal in 1611 and Luis de Quinones Osorio keeping the statutes of Alfaro in observance against the murmuring of the province." }, { "id": "du-graty-republica-del-paraguay-1862", "title": "La República del Paraguay", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=AimyGxVKnpgC&pg=PA23", "publisher": "Alfred Louis Hubert Ghislain, baron de Marbais du Graty. J. Jacquin, 1862; 654 pages. Imprint taken from the volume's Google Books feed entry, not from the title page - see notes", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "A nineteenth-century European survey of Paraguay whose historical chapters are compiled from earlier writers, used here for one purpose only - as a witness independent of Funes that the ordinances are dated 1612 and were understood as abolishing the servitude the Indians had been held in since the conquest. PA23 read as a page scan on 2026-08-13, running head \"HISTORIA DEL PARAGUAY\", giving the end of Hernando de Saavedra's government in 1609, Diego Martin de Negron in his place, the visitador Francisco de Alfaro who \"dicto, en 1612, ordenanzas relativas a los Indios, aboliendo la especie de esclavitud en que se les habia mantenido desde la conquista\", Negron's death in 1615, Francisco Gonzalez de Santa-Cruz cooperating actively in executing Alfaro's measures, Saavedra recalled a third time, and the royal division of the province into Paraguay and Rio de la Plata in 1620. The title page was not opened - the host began returning the \"Sorry...\" throttle interstitial before it could be fetched - so the imprint above is the feed entry's and is flagged as such rather than asserted from the sheets. Nothing this volume says about the nineteenth-century republic is cited anywhere in this corpus." }, { "id": "gioia-2013-european-common-bean", "title": "Evidence for Introduction Bottleneck and Extensive Inter-Gene Pool (Mesoamerica x Andes) Hybridization in the European Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Germplasm", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3788063/", "publisher": "Gioia T, Logozzo G, Attene G, Bellucci E, Benedettelli S, Negri V, Papa R, Spagnoletti Zeuli P. PLoS ONE 8(10):e75974, 1 October 2013. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0075974. PMCID PMC3788063, PMID 24098412", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Peer-reviewed population genetics, read as full text on 2026-08-13. 256 European and 89 American landraces typed with 13 nuclear and 6 chloroplast microsatellites plus phaseolin and the Pv-shatterproof1 marker. Supplies the hybrid frequencies (40.2 per cent of the European accessions against 12.3 per cent of the American), the gene-pool proportions in Europe (76 per cent Andean, 24 per cent Mesoamerican), and the asymmetric bottleneck measured on pure accessions only (delta He 0.29 in the Mesoamerican germplasm against 0.06 in the Andean). The 1506 and 1528 introduction dates repeated in its introduction are received history carried by the paper without a document behind them, and are cited here at low confidence and flagged as such." }, { "id": "pipan-meglic-2019-european-bean-progression", "title": "Diversification and genetic structure of the western-to-eastern progression of European Phaseolus vulgaris L. germplasm", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6813049/", "publisher": "Pipan B, Meglic V. BMC Plant Biology 19:442, 2019. doi:10.1186/s12870-019-2051-0. PMCID PMC6813049", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Peer-reviewed population genetics, read as full text on 2026-08-13. 782 accessions drawn from nine gene banks and twelve European countries - Portugal, Spain, Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Ukraine - typed with 33 SSR markers including the three PvSHP1 gene-pool assignment markers. Supplies the west-to-east diversification, the three eastern subgroups, the gene-pool proportions (62 per cent Andean, 25.8 per cent Mesoamerican, 12.2 per cent mixed) and the variance partition (89 per cent within accessions, 4 per cent among countries of origin). Its 12.2 per cent mixed is in open disagreement with the 40.2 per cent hybrids of gioia-2013-european-common-bean, which is carried into the claims rather than averaged away." }, { "id": "schmutz-2014-common-bean-dual-domestication", "title": "A reference genome for common bean and genome-wide analysis of dual domestications", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7048698/", "publisher": "Schmutz J, McClean PE, Mamidi S, Wu GA, Cannon SB and more than forty further co-authors. Nature Genetics 46:707-713, 2014. doi:10.1038/ng.3008. PMCID PMC7048698", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The reference genome paper, read as full text on 2026-08-13. Supplies the two independent domestications about 8,000 years ago from pools that had diverged about 165,000 years ago (confidence interval 146,000-184,000), the derivation of the wild Andean population from the Mesoamerican by a founder event of a few thousand individuals followed by a bottleneck of about 76,000 years with no appreciable growth in effective population size, and the near-disjoint selection landscapes of the two domestications - 930 windows totalling 74 Mb in the Mesoamerican, 750 windows totalling 60 Mb in the Andean, with only 7.234 Mb shared. Cited only for the American evolutionary history of the plant and never for its passage to Europe." }, { "id": "motolinia-tratado-iii-cap-xviii-atlixco", "title": "Historia de los indios de la Nueva España, Tratado III capítulo XVIII — the valley of Atlixco, the royal mulberry plantation and the raising of silk", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=WJk6nlChEKYC&pg=PA237", "publisher": "Fray Toribio de Benavente (Motolinía), 1541; published by Joaquín García Icazbalceta in Colección de documentos para la historia de México, tomo primero, Mexico, Librería de J. M. Andrade / Imprenta particular del editor, 1858. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "A separate registration of the chapter on the Atlixco valley in the same 1858 Icazbalceta printing already registered as motolinia-historia-1858; reliability is set below the tier for the same reason as the parent entry, that the wording is an editor's reconstruction from manuscript collated against the Kingsborough edition and no autograph is being quoted. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-13 - PA237, PA239 and PA240, the running head \"TRATADO III, CAPITULO XVIII\" on each. Contents relied on - the heredades of Val de Cristo with \"los morales que tienen puestos y ponen cada dia, porque hay muy grande aparejo para criar seda\"; the royal plantation in the valley, \"ahora se hace una heredad para el rey, que tiene ciento y diez mil morales, de los cuales están ya traspuestos mas de la mitad, y crecen tanto, que en un año se hacen acá mayores que en España en cinco\"; the vecinos of the city of los Angeles who have \"cinco y seis mil piés de morales\"; the prediction that \"desde aquí á pocos años se criará mas seda en esta Nueva España que en toda la cristiandad\"; the note that thunder kills the spinning worm elsewhere but not here; the sentence \"En esta tierra antes que la simiente viniese de España yo ví gusanos de seda naturales y su capullo, mas eran pequeños y ellos mismos se criaban por los árboles sin que nadie hiciese caso de ellos, por no ser entre los Indios conocida su virtud y propiedad\"; and the two crops a year, with the author's own observation of the second brood \"en este año de 1540, en principio de Junio ya grandecillos\"." }, { "id": "recopilacion-ley-de-la-seda-1549", "title": "Recopilación de leyes de los reynos de las Indias, libro VI título V, ley xxxxviiij — that the Indians receive no injury in paying more than their assessments, nor in their husbandries", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Lt41mzCz8zEC&pg=PA238", "publisher": "Madrid, por la Viuda de D. Joaquín Ibarra, impresora del Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias, 1791, tomo segundo. Complutense University of Madrid copy, digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "A separate registration of one page of the volume already registered as recopilacion-indias-1791-t2. Page PA238 opened and read as a scan on 2026-08-13, running head \"Libro VI. Título V.\" Contents relied on - ley xxxxviiij, margin \"El Emperador D. Cárlos y los Reyes de Bohemia Gobernadores en Valladolid á 22 de Junio de 1549\", whose text reads \"LOS Encomenderos de Nueva España, demas de los tributos que perciben, hacen que los Indios les crien seda, valiéndose de los morales que tienen en sus tierras, en que reciben perjuicio, y daño, quitándoles sus frutos, y grangerías: Mandamos que nuestras Audiencias pongan el remedio que mas convenga, y hagan de forma que los Indios no sean agraviados, y gocen de sus haciendas libremente, sin estorbo en sus grangerías, y aprovechamientos, como personas libres, y vasallos nuestros.\" The same page carries ley xxxxviij on assessed tribute and ley l of 4 September 1551 on executors sent against those who exceed the assessments." }, { "id": "recopilacion-encomenderos-libro-vi-titulo-ix", "title": "Recopilación de leyes de los reynos de las Indias, libro VI título IX, De los Encomenderos de Indios — leyes xiiij to xxij", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Lt41mzCz8zEC&pg=PA267", "publisher": "Madrid, por la Viuda de D. Joaquín Ibarra, impresora del Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias, 1791, tomo segundo. Complutense University of Madrid copy, digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "A separate registration of two pages of the volume already registered as recopilacion-indias-1791-t2. Pages PA267 and PA268 opened and read as scans on 2026-08-13, running heads \"De los Encomenderos de Indios\" and \"Libro VI. Título VIIII.\" Contents relied on - ley xiiij, barring the encomendero, his wife, parents, children, kin, servants and guests from residing in or entering the towns of his encomienda \"porque de esta comunicación, y asistencia resulta, que los naturales son fatigados con servicios personales, á que sin causa, ni razon los obligan\", penalty fifty pesos; ley xvj of 10 October 1618, making the encomendero answerable for all damages done to the Indians by his household; ley xvij of 31 March 1633, forbidding him to hold estancias within the bounds of the town; ley xviij of 28 May 1621, forbidding obrajes inside the encomienda or so near it \"que se pueda rezelar, que ocuparán á los Indios en servicios personales\"; ley xviiij of 1 May 1549, forbidding Spaniards to raise pigs in the towns of their encomiendas or where the Indians have their tillage; ley xx of Toledo, 4 December 1528, ordering that encomenderos not keep in their houses Indian women of their repartimiento nor make use of them, \"dexénlas estar, y residir con los maridos, é hijos, aunque digan, que las tienen de su voluntad, y las paguen\", penalty one hundred gold pesos for each; ley xxj of 10 October 1618, on the freedom of Indian marriage, quoted in full in the object that cites it; and ley xxij of Valladolid, 7 February 1549, that those holding Indians in encomienda, sequestration or deposit may not send them to the mines." }, { "id": "villasenor-theatro-americano-guejolotitlan-1748", "title": "Theatro americano, Parte Segunda, Libro Quarto capítulo IV — the jurisdiction of Guejolotitlán and the pueblo called la Seda", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=_FVfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA126", "publisher": "Joseph Antonio de Villa-Señor y Sanchez, Contador General de la Real Contaduria de Azogues and Cosmographo of the kingdom; Mexico, en la Imprenta de la Viuda de D. Joseph Bernardo de Hogal, 1748. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "A separate registration of two pages of the volume already registered as villasenor-theatro-americano-parte-segunda-1748, from Libro Quarto rather than Libro III; reliability is set below the tier for the same reason as the parent entry, that the figures are the author's redaction of returns sent in by local officials rather than a count he made himself. Pages PA126 and PA127 opened and read as scans on 2026-08-13, running heads \"THEATRO AMERICANO\" and \"LIBRO QUARTO.\" Contents relied on - the heading \"CAPITULO IV. De la Jurisdiccion de Guejolotitlán, y sus Pueblos\", the count of nine hundred and fifty families in the district, the Dominican parish administering in Zapotec with Mixtec spoken in some pueblos, the crops of the partido being cochineal, maize, wheat and cotton; and the passage on the pueblo called la Seda - \"Toca à este Partido el Pueblo nombrado la Seda, en el qual antiguamente avia crecida copia de enxambre de gusanos de seda, cuyo beneficio daba notable utilidad, no solo â esta Jurisdiccion, sino á la Region mysteca su vecina, de donde tomò nombre la Seda, assi llamada, y con la seda de esta cria esmaltaban sus ropas de algodon los antiguos, empero les pareciò à sus cerriles habitadores, que por desfrutar el beneficio de este noble capullo, avian de ser percegidos, no solamente suspendieron la cria del enxambre, sino que inutilizaron los morales de su sustento; oy ay muy poca, à causa de averse destinado los Indios à otras haciendas, como son las de grana, mayces, y algodon.\"" }, { "id": "lorenzana-avisos-para-los-naturales-1769", "title": "Avisos para que los Naturales de estos Reynos sean felices en lo espiritual, y temporal — the fourteen numbered avisos within the Avisos para la acertada conducta de un Párroco en la América", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=sMREAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA392", "publisher": "Francisco Antonio Lorenzana, archbishop of Mexico, printed in Concilios provinciales primero, y segundo, celebrados en la muy noble, y muy leal Ciudad de Mexico; en Mexico, en la Imprenta de el Superior Gobierno, de el Br. D. Joseph Antonio de Hogal, año de 1769. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "A separate registration of the closing appendix of the volume already registered as concilios-mexicanos-lorenzana-1769; reliability is set below the tier because the archbishop who composed the piece was pursuing a reform programme of his own and the text is his own prescription rather than a record of what was done. Pages PA392, PA393, PA394 and PA395 opened and read as scans on 2026-08-13, running heads \"Avisos para la acertada conducta\" and \"de un Párroco en la América.\" Contents relied on - the framing sentence at item VII of the advice to the parish priest, \"Para persuadir á los Naturales lo que les conviene, se les explicarán los siguientes Avisos\", followed by the head \"AVISOS PARA QUE LOS NATURALES de estos Reynos sean felices en lo espiritual, y temporal\" and its fourteen numbered items, of which those used here are I on the doctrine in Castilian, II on raised and separated sleeping places, III on every Indian over twenty-five holding an occupation and on houses built \"como para racionales, y no para bestias\" with the elders of each pueblo settling the manner of building, IV on every householder keeping fowls, turkeys, pigs, a cow or goats and a mare or mule, V on composing quarrels without lawsuits and never being led by cabezillas, VI on cleanliness of the parish and drunkenness as the cause of poverty and disease, VII on neighbours attending the sick with a fowl, tortillas or eggs, VIII on the women's looms and on cotton clothing being less healthy than linen or hemp, IX on the school of Castilian, X on marrying children to \"los puros Indios ó con Españoles, y Castizos\" and not confounding themselves with the castas, XI on governors punishing drunkenness and theft, XII on caciques being honoured, XIII on the prohibition of selling their real property because \"son menores\", and XIV on the privileges granted by the popes and the kings. Also read - PA395, where the author writes \"Estos Avisos, que he formado para Párrocos, é Indios, principalmente procuro aplicármelos\", and announces that the third Mexican council will be printed in a separate volume." }, { "id": "spangler-2017-caribbean-hair-sheep", "title": "Whole genome structural analysis of Caribbean hair sheep reveals quantitative link to West African ancestry", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5490989/", "publisher": "PLoS ONE 12(6):e0179021 (2017), Public Library of Science. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Population-genomic study of Caribbean hair sheep against reference breeds, read on 2026-08-13. Used here for the Iberian leg of the story that the paper states in passing while arguing its West African case: Spanish Churra \"arrived in the Caribbean at the beginning of the 16th century with the second voyage of Columbus\"; Merinos \"were banned from exportation during the early stages of colonization\" because of the value of their wool, which is why Churra was the sheep available to the Indies; and, in the structural results, \"there is virtually no difference in our structural analysis between the Navajo Churro and its accepted ancestor the Spanish Churra\", the two clustering identically in admixture analysis. Reliability 0.85 rather than 0.9 because the Iberian sentences are background to the paper's own question rather than its finding, while the clustering result is." }, { "id": "revelo-2020-colombian-creole-sheep", "title": "Mitochondrial DNA Variations in Colombian Creole Sheep Confirm an Iberian Origin and Shed Light on the Dynamics of Introduction Events of African Genotypes", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7552328/", "publisher": "Animals (Basel) 10(9):1594 (2020), MDPI. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-13. Mitochondrial survey of Colombian creole sheep. Carries both halves of the introduction: \"Creole sheep in Latin America are derived from the introduction of Iberian sheep breeds during European colonization\", \"introduced in South America by Spanish colonizers by the end of the fifteenth century\", the candidate breeds named as \"Manchega, Lacha and Churra\" with Castellana and Aragonesa probable; and then the second layer, \"hair sheep of West Africa were introduced during the slave trade and were intended to supply the labor demand of the sugarcane industry\". The paper is explicit that the breed attribution is an assumption of the literature rather than a result, which is why the claim built on it is carried below 0.9." }, { "id": "salinas-rios-2021-chocholteca-creole-sheep", "title": "Genetic Characterization of a Sheep Population in Oaxaca, Mexico: The Chocholteca Creole", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8073038/", "publisher": "Animals (Basel) 11(4):1172 (2021), MDPI. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-13. Microsatellite characterisation of a surviving creole flock in the Mixteca Alta of Oaxaca. Used for the survival-and-loss end of the object: the zone \"inhabited by the Chocholteca ethnic group, still conserves a sheep population with no more than 100 animals that present morphological characteristics similar to those introduced over 500 years ago\", the animals \"became adapted to unfavorable environments and became the base of animal production\", 205 alleles with an effective number of 3.33 and moderate intra-racial diversity. Reliability 0.85: the sample is small and the historical continuity is argued from morphology plus locality, not from ancient DNA." }, { "id": "pedrosa-2007-iberian-sheep-mtdna", "title": "Mitochondrial diversity and the origin of Iberian sheep", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2739436/", "publisher": "Genetics Selection Evolution 39(1):91-103 (2007), BioMed Central / INRA. Open access, read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-13. Only the abstract and front matter rendered through this container's fetch path, so the two statements used here are the two the abstract makes: \"Mitochondrial DNA diversity was analysed in 19 Iberian and six foreign sheep breeds\" and \"three mtDNA lineages (B, A and C) were found in the Iberian sheep, with type B clearly predominating over the others\", with breeds \"from the Churro group\" showing \"greater maternal uniformity\". Registered with that limitation stated rather than implied; nothing from the body of the paper is cited." }, { "id": "dangl-2015-california-vitis-hybridization", "title": "Hybridization of cultivated Vitis vinifera with wild V. californica and V. girdiana in California", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4813103/", "publisher": "Ecology and Evolution 5(23):5671-5684 (2015), Wiley. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-13. A genetic survey of wild grape populations in California that doubles as the varietal history of the vine Spain planted in the Americas: \"Vitis vinifera came initially to southern California with Spanish missionaries starting in 1769\"; \"for ~100 years, the introduction was limited to a single cultivar, 'Listan Prieto'\", of Spanish origin, with \"a long history of cultivation in South America under the name 'Criolla Chica'\", known in California \"simply as 'Mission'\"; and the consequence, \"thirty percent of 119 V. californica vines were hybrids\", with 'Mission' the domesticated parent of eight of the sixteen F1 hybrids whose parent could be identified, plus backcrosses \"showing introgression into subsequent generations\"." }, { "id": "ellestad-2022-mexican-vanilla-genomics", "title": "Genomic Insights into Cultivated Mexican Vanilla planifolia Reveal High Levels of Heterozygosity Stemming from Hybridization", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9412680/", "publisher": "Plants (Basel) 11(16):2090 (2022), MDPI. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-13. Low-coverage genome sequencing of 15 cultivated Vanilla planifolia plants from the Mexican centre of cultivation. Used for the domestication argument - \"at least two main domestication events of hybridization have occurred within vanilla cultivated in Mexico\", heterozygosity \"ranging from 2.48% to 2.85%\" in most accessions against 0.403% in one - and for the present-tense loss: \"manual self-pollination and clonal vegetative propagation practices have resulted in low genetic diversity within the cultivated species\", with wild populations under \"land-use change, habitat fragmentation, and illegal harvesting\"." }, { "id": "oliveira-2022-vanilla-taxonomy-history", "title": "Vanilla beyond Vanilla planifolia and Vanilla x tahitensis: Taxonomy and Historical Notes, Reproductive Biology, and Metabolites", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9739750/", "publisher": "Plants (Basel) 11(23):3311 (2022), MDPI. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-13. Review paper whose historical section supplies the chronology used here: vanilla fruits \"have been used as a flavoring and medicinal beverage since the Preclassical period by multiple cultures in Mesoamerica, including the Mayans, Olmecs, Aztecs, and Totonacs\"; \"in the 16th century, after the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs, vanilla was introduced in Europe but was not cultivated outside of its native range until 1832\"; it \"came to have a real commercial value only in the 17th century, as a component of chocolate, which was popular in European capitals\"; and Edmond Albius of Reunion \"developed a technique for manually pollinating the flowers\". Reliability 0.85 because the historical section is a review compiled from secondary literature, not archival work, and it is used only where a printed source of the period can stand beside it or where the date is uncontroversial." }, { "id": "solorzano-politica-indiana-1736-caciques", "title": "Política Indiana, libro II — the closing sections (§§35-51) of the chapter on the caciques, on the royal orders to found colleges for their sons and on the legal position of the cacicazgo", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=huEykw_YtzYC&pg=PA202", "publisher": "Juan de Solórzano Pereira, Política Indiana (Madrid, 1736 impression, tomo I), pages 202-203. Digitised full view, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read as signed page images on 2026-08-13, pages 202 and 203 of the same digitised volume already registered as solorzano-politica-indiana-1736-t1. Carries §39 on the many royal cédulas ordering colleges founded and endowed for the sons of caciques (citing L.11 tít.23 lib.1 and l.18 tít.1 lib.6 Recop.); §37 quoting Acosta that the caciques hold the will of the common Indians absolutely in their hands; §40 dating later cédulas to San Lorenzo 22 July 1595, Madrid 17 March \"1919\" (a plain misprint, reported uncorrected) and 28 March 1620; §43 on Francisco Cipeo's recommendation that the Society of Jesus take charge; §44, Solórzano's first-person statement that while he was in Lima, a college having been erected there for the sons of caciques and another at Cuzco, he was of the opinion that the Society be charged with them \"y assí se hizo\"; and §§46-51 on cacique jurisdiction, succession by custom, mestizo descendants, and the punishment of caciques who work their Indians badly or take their daughters. Page 203 also prints the heading and printed summary of libro II capítulo XXVIII." }, { "id": "solorzano-politica-indiana-1736-personas-miserables", "title": "Política Indiana, libro II, capítulo XXVIII — that the Indians are and should be counted among the persons the law calls miserable, and of the temporal privileges they enjoy for that cause, and of their protectors", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=huEykw_YtzYC&pg=PA204", "publisher": "Juan de Solórzano Pereira, Política Indiana (Madrid, 1736 impression, tomo I), pages 203-205. Digitised full view, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read as signed page images on 2026-08-13 - the chapter heading and its printed 56-point summary on page 203, and the chapter text on pages 204 and 205. Same digitised volume as solorzano-politica-indiana-1736-t1 and solorzano-politica-indiana-1736-caciques; registered separately because it is a distinct chapter cited for distinct claims. Carries the grounds of the classification (§§1-3), Gregorio García's comparison, Ávila Padilla's judgement that what is ordered for the Indians' benefit turns to their greater harm (§4), the Gregorio López apothegm \"dexallos\" with Solórzano's own note that he could not find it in the compiled Life (§5), Philip IV's holograph addition to the ninth ordinance of the Council of the Indies (§7), the cédula del servicio personal of 1601 on their utility (§9), the Third Council of Lima on pastors and not wolves (§10), the cédula of Madrid 29 December 1593 ordering the Audiencia of Lima to punish Spaniards more rigorously for injuring Indians than for the same offences against Spaniards (§12), the Second Council of Lima on the curacas (§14), the Cuzco amputation ordered by Solórzano's father-in-law Gabriel Paniagua de Loaysa (§15) and his admission that the poor conceal such injuries knowing there is no check on them (§15). All cédulas and canons here are quoted by Solórzano and were not opened in their own printings." }, { "id": "cieza-cronica-1553-papas-y-chuno", "title": "Parte primera de la chronica del Peru — the passages on papas, chuño, quinua and the adoption of wheat and barley (folios xlix and cxiv)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=PpNbAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR49", "publisher": "Pedro de Cieza de León, Parte primera de la chronica del Peru (Seville, 1553), folios xlix and cxiv. Digitised full view, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read as signed page images of the black-letter original on 2026-08-13, the same digitised volume already registered as cieza-cronica-del-peru-sevilla-1553. Folio xlix, on the country of Quito, describes papas as \"a manera de turmas de tierra\", tender inside as a cooked chestnut when boiled, skinless and stoneless, growing underground, the plant bearing a flower like a poppy; describes quinua and its use as a drink and cooked \"como nosotros el arroz\"; and records that many of the natives subject to Quito now sow, eat and brew wheat and barley. Folio cxiv, on the Collao, records that the cold is such that maize bears no fruit and there are no trees; that the chief sustenance is papas, dried in the sun and kept from one harvest to the next under the name chuño; that this matters because the Collao lacks rivers and acequias to irrigate; that many Spaniards grew rich and returned to Spain prosperous on carrying this chuño to sell at the mines of Potosí; and names oca, quinua, the mitimaes and the coca of the encomienda." }, { "id": "chrominski-2024-nordic-potato-duplicates", "title": "Genetic markers identify duplicates in Nordic potato collections", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11381411/", "publisher": "Frontiers in Plant Science (2024), doi 10.3389/fpls.2024.1405314. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Peer-reviewed genebank-genotyping paper by Chrominski, Carlson-Nilsson, Palmé, Kirk, Asdal and Ansebo. Read on 2026-08-13. Cited here only for the historical framing in its introduction, which is background rather than the paper's own finding, hence reliability 0.8 and confidence at or below 0.85 on the claims bound to it: that the cultivated potato \"has its origin in the Andes in South America and was domesticated about 7,000-10,000 years ago\"; that it \"was brought to Europe in the second half of the sixteenth century and the first introductions were to Spain, via Canary Islands, and to England\"; and that it did not become a staple of the everyday European diet until the nineteenth century." }, { "id": "spooner-2005-single-potato-domestication", "title": "A single domestication for potato based on multilocus amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1253605/", "publisher": "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102(41):14694-14699 (2005), doi 10.1073/pnas.0507400102. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Peer-reviewed study by Spooner, McLean, Ramsay, Waugh and Bryan. Read on 2026-08-13. Used for the monophyletic origin of the landrace cultivars from the northern component of the Solanum brevicaule complex in Peru, with S. bukasovii the earliest available name in that group, and for the finding that Chilean landraces are secondarily derived from Andean ones, probably following hybridisation with S. tarijense. The paper does not discuss the European introduction and is not cited for it." }, { "id": "neve-y-molina-reglas-othomi-1767", "title": "Reglas de orthographia, diccionario, y arte del idioma othomi, breve instruccion para los principiantes", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=z0FNEXFqplsC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Que dicto el L. D. Luis de Neve, y Molina, cathedratico proprietario de dicho idioma en el Real y Pontificio Colegio Seminario; impressas en Mexico, con las licencias necesarias, en la Imprenta de la Bibliotheca Mexicana, en el Puente del Espiritu Santo, ano de 1767. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The 1767 Mexico sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-13. The volume feed entry gives the author, the imprint, the year and 196 pages; the click3 map returns 200 page images and the scan is full view throughout. Reliability sits a little below the tier because the author is describing a language he teaches and serves as a court interpreter in, so his judgements about difficulty and about priority are interested, while his transcriptions and paradigms are first-hand. Pages opened and read - PP1, the vellum binding; PP3, a flyleaf with an ownership inscription; PP5, the title page carrying the full title, the author's four offices and the imprint; PP9, the opening of the dedication to Saint Joseph; PP29, the close of the address to the reader, with the three-part plan of the book and the claim to be the first arte of the language given to a press; PA1, the opening of the first part on orthography, with the letters of Castilian the language does not use; PA5, the three kinds of u, narical and gutural, with their glosses; PA8, the three sibilant series, the saltillo and the stroke that marks it, and the length pair for needle and muleteer; PA96, the end of the dictionary with the numeral list; PA101, the first chapter of the arte, the seven parts of the sentence and the argument that there is no participle. The licences and approbations in the front matter were not opened, and the body of the dictionary was seen only at its final page." }, { "id": "orozco-y-berra-memoria-plano-mexico-1867", "title": "Memoria para el plano de la ciudad de México, formada de órden del Ministerio de Fomento - the sections BIBLIOTECA DE CATEDRAL, HOSPITAL DE JESUS NAZARENO and HOSPITAL MUNICIPAL", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=UX-K43hmxUQC&pg=PA194", "publisher": "Manuel Orozco y Berra; México, Imprenta de Santiago White, 1867, 252 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "A topographical and statistical memoir of Mexico City written for the Ministerio de Fomento by the geographer and historian Manuel Orozco y Berra, who is also named among the Mexican editors of the Diccionario universal cited elsewhere in this registry - so where the two agree they are not fully independent witnesses. Pages read as page scans on 2026-08-13: PA193 (the school statistics of 1866 and the opening of the section BIBLIOTECA DE CATEDRAL), PA194 (the close of that section and the whole opening of HOSPITAL DE JESUS NAZARENO), PA195 (the church contract of 1601, the image of Petronila Gerónima and the change of the hospital's name), PA196 (the burials of Cortés and the sentence \"Se conserva todavía el hospital\"), and PA199 (the municipal hospital and the transfer of the lazarinos out of San Lázaro on 12 August 1862). The volume is a nineteenth-century compilation writing about sixteenth- and seventeenth-century events without citations at the point of use, and its passages on Cortés are openly admiring; registered secondary and cited with that in view." }, { "id": "diccionario-universal-mexico-1853-tomo-i", "title": "The articles BIBLIOTECA DE LA SANTA IGLESIA CATEDRAL METROPOLITANA, BIBLIOTECA DEL COLEGIO DE SAN JUAN DE LETRAN and BIBLIOTECAS PÚBLICAS DE EUROPA in the Diccionario universal de historia y de geografía, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=qwJCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA596", "publisher": "México, Tipografía de Rafael, 1853; the Mexican edition of the Madrid Diccionario universal, refundida y aumentada with Mexican articles, Lucas Alamán and Manuel Orozco y Berra named as its editors. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.65, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Pages PA596-PA598 read as page scans on 2026-08-13. The article on the cathedral library carries the founders' names and dates, the Latin inscription composed by the dean Beristáin with the Spanish translation printed beside it, the list of later donations, the 1844 index figure of 12,295 cuerpos, the opening hours, the staffing and the writer's own list of the establishment's defects; it is signed \"M. B.\" The facing column prints a table of the principal public libraries of Europe with their volume counts, which is what allows the Mexican figure to be read against a contemporary scale. A mid-nineteenth-century encyclopaedia article written some sixty years after the foundation it describes, with no citations at the point of use; registered secondary." }, { "id": "diccionario-universal-mexico-1854-tomo-iv-lazaro", "title": "The article LAZARO (Hospital de san) in the Diccionario universal de historia y de geografía, tomo IV, H - LYT", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=LcBa9gWcXpoC&pg=PA671", "publisher": "Mexico, tipografia de Rafael, calle de Cadena num. 13, 1854; the Mexican reissue of the Madrid Diccionario universal, with articles on Mexican subjects added by its Mexican editors and marked in the text with an asterisk. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.65, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The same volume already registered as diccionario-universal-mexico-1854-tomo-iv, registered again under its own id for a different article, so that the note records what was actually read for it. Pages PA671, PA672 and PA673 read as page scans on 2026-08-13. The article carries the Cortés foundation on the Ribera de San Cosme, the royal cédula of 12 July 1530 quoted at length, the refoundation by Dr Pedro López, the descent and litigation of the patronage, the cession to the Order of San Juan de Dios in 1721, the building accounts of the 1733 deed, the matlazáhuatl of 1737, the endowed bed count of the printed 1774 estado, the secularisation of 1787 and the state of the house in 1851. It is signed \"J. M. D.\" and is written from inside the tradition it defends - it argues explicitly against \"escritores modernos\" hostile to the religious orders and calls the Cortes decree of 1821 impious - so its judgements are cited as judgements and its figures at reduced confidence." }, { "id": "perez-y-lopez-teatro-legislacion-t15-1797", "title": "Teatro de la legislacion universal de España e Indias, por orden cronologico de sus cuerpos, y decisiones no recopiladas, tomo XV", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=_S-rci080JEC", "publisher": "Antonio Xavier Perez y Lopez; Madrid, Imprenta de Manuel Gonzalez, 1797. Digitised full view on Google Books, read as signed page scans", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "A contemporary alphabetical compendium of Spanish and Indies legislation. Pages 163-172, read as page images on 2026-08-13, carry the article \"Gracias al sacar\" and, under the sub-heading \"Reales resoluciones no recopiladas de Indias\", the full text of the royal cedula of 10 February 1795 with its arancel. Verified on the page: the preamble reciting the Contaduria general's new arancel of 10 September and the consulta of 20 October; the tariff in reales de vellon, opening at 8,800 for the faculty to found an entail; 6,000 for a foreigner's licence to reside in the Indies and 6,000 for a carta de naturaleza; 10,000 and 8,000 for chains at the doors of a community or of a private person; 1,000 for the style of Don and 1,000 for a city to be styled \"muy noble, leal\"; 40,000 and 30,000 for an honorary regidor in a provincial capital and elsewhere; 500 for the dispensation of the quality of Pardo and 800 for that of Quinteron; 24,200 for legitimating children of professed knights of the military orders and of clergy and 19,800 for other legitimations of the same class; 80,000 for each patent of noble status; 22 reales the fanega for licence to enclose a private field; the media annata due under number 42 of the royal cedula of 3 July 1664; the reservation to the Camara de Indias to graduate or increase any quota; and the order to viceroys, audiencias and governors of the Indies and the Philippines to publish the arancel. The running foot at page 169 gives the volume as Tom. XV. Registered as primary for the text of the 1795 cedula because this is a contemporary printing reproducing it verbatim two years after its date, not a summary; it has not been collated against the original cedula printing, which is not reachable from this container." }, { "id": "rodriguez-san-pedro-legislacion-ultramarina-1865", "title": "Legislacion ultramarina, concordada y anotada por J. Rodriguez San Pedro", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=9TwOAAAAQAAJ", "publisher": "Joaquin Rodriguez San Pedro; Madrid, 1865. Digitised full view on Google Books, read as signed page scans", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "A nineteenth-century compilation of the overseas legislation held to be in force, arranged by subject, printing colonial statutes in extract with every omission marked by a row of dots. Read as page images on 2026-08-13. Pages 413-416, under the running head \"Colonizacion\" and the section heading \"Colonizacion blanca\", carry the royal cedula of 10 August 1815 granting gracias and franquicias to Puerto Rico — articles 8 to 23 and 29 to 33, with 1 to 7 and 24 to 28 elided — and, following it, the royal cedula of 21 October 1817 extending the same terms to Cuba at the request of the ayuntamiento, consulado and sociedad economica of Havana. The same pages carry the Cortes decree of 5 January 1811 on the protection of Indians and the royal decree of 22 April 1820 restoring the Cortes decree of 9 November 1812 abolishing the mitas and repartimientos of Indians. Pages 666-669, under the running head \"Milicias\", carry the Reglamento para las Milicias de infanteria y caballeria de la isla de Cuba approved by royal cedula of 19 January 1769 — chapter I article 1 on the establishment, including the two battalions of free pardos and the battalion of free morenos; chapters IV, X and XI on the fuero militar and its privileges; chapters III and V to IX printed as bare headings — the royal cedula of 15 April 1771 making declarations on it, and the royal orders of 11 June and 19 July 1862 on the white militias. Tiered secondary because it is an abridging compilation of 1865 and not the printings of the statutes it reproduces." }, { "id": "valdes-historia-isla-de-cuba-habana-1813", "title": "Historia de la isla de Cuba, y en especial de la Habana - Volumen I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=BUDLX1B6ilMC&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Antonio J. Valdes; Habana, Oficina de la Cena, 1813. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "A Havana imprint of 1813 describing the city's institutions as they then stood, read as page scans on 2026-08-13. Title page at PP7 - \"HISTORIA DE LA ISLA DE CUBA, Y EN ESPECIAL DE LA HABANA. Por D. Antonio J. Valdes ... EN DOS VOLUMENES. VOLUMEN I. HABANA. OFICINA DE LA CENA. - 1813\", under a Cicero epigraph printed in Latin and in Spanish: the first law of history is not to write lies, the second not to conceal the truth, the third not to make oneself suspect of friendship or enmity. Pages opened and read - PP7 (title page), PP9 (proemio, where the author calls his book a simple ensayo written from short knowledge and from the wish to give his patria the history it lacks), PA105 (the inscription over the Puerta de la Punta), PA315-322 (the naval chapter: jurisdiction of marine, the origin of shipbuilding in the port, the move of the Arsenal, launch technique, the printed list of vessels built and its totals). Registered primary for what it prints and for the state of the city in 1813; for events of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries it is a compiler working from Arrate, whom it cites by chapter, and claims resting on those pages are set lower. He writes as a resident advocate of Havana, which is why reliability sits at 0.8." }, { "id": "juarros-compendio-guatemala-1810-tomo-i", "title": "Compendio de la historia de la ciudad de Guatemala, escrito por el Br. D. Domingo Juarros, presbitero secular de este arzobispado. Tomo I, que comprende los preliminares de dicha historia", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=4CFEAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA153", "publisher": "Con licencia, en Guatemala, por D. Ignacio Beteta, ano de 1810 (title page read at PP9); digitised full view, read as page scans", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Contemporary printed description and history of the capital of the Kingdom of Guatemala by a secular priest of the archbishopric. Title page (PP9) gives the imprint above; the Google Books catalogue entry agrees on 1810, I. Beteta, 408 pages. The volume is a witness of two different strengths and the objects that use it say so: for the seventeenth-century foundation of the university Juarros is reporting archives he consulted — his own footnote at PA155 says \"consta lo que aqui referimos de los autos originales de la fundacion de esta Universidad\" — while for the 1773 earthquake he writes as an eyewitness, \"aun a los que fuimos testigos de esta tragedia\" (PA233). The aprobacion in the front matter (PP11) is signed by Fr. Jose Antonio Goicoechea, who is also named at PA221 as a founder of the Sociedad Economica the book describes; the book is therefore not disinterested about that body. Pages read 2026-08-13: PP9 (title page), PP11 (Goicoechea's aprobacion); PA81 (the Sociedad Economica founded 1795 and \"suspendida en sus exercicios por Real Orden de 1799\", the drawing academy and sala de modelo it left, the Real Gabinete de Historia Natural, three free primary schools and two Latin classes, the city's four hospitals); PA152-PA160 (chapter V, the whole foundation of the Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Carlos: the cedulas of 1546, 1548, 1673, 1676, 1678, 1680 and 1687, Marroquin's bequest, the Colegio de Santo Tomas, Crespo Suarez's 20,000 pesos, the eight chairs voted on 6 December 1678 including lengua Kacchiquel, the oposiciones read in the hall of the Consejo de Indias, the statutes of Sarasa y Arce, the bull E Suprema, note 2 on the scholastic method until 1768 and the experimental physics, geometry, anatomy and surgery examinations of 1768-1799, and note 3 on Rafael Gil Rodriguez); PA220-PA224 (the Contaduria mayor of 1769, the Tribunal del Consulado erected 30 April 1794 under the ordinances of Bilbao, and the full account of the Real Sociedad Economica 1795-1800); PA232-PA239 (the earthquakes of 1773, the schism in the vecindario, the juntas of 4 August 1773 and 12-16 January 1774, the royal confirmation of 21 July 1775, the alcabala subsidy, the bando of 29 July 1777, the petequial fevers, the smallpox of 1780 and the first inoculation practised in Guatemala)." }, { "id": "squier-monograph-central-american-languages-1861", "title": "Monograph of Authors who Have Written on the Languages of Central America, and Collected Vocabularies or Composed Works in the Native Dialects of that Country", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=qgtbAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA31", "publisher": "E. G. Squier; New York, C. B. Richardson & Company, 1861; digitised full view, read as page scans", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "A nineteenth-century American bibliographer's alphabetical census of writers on Central American languages, compiled from De Souza, Beristain, Brasseur de Bourbourg and others, and explicit about which entries rest on which authority. Used here only as an independent check on the University of San Carlos, since Squier is not drawing on Juarros for these entries. Pages read 2026-08-13: PA28 (Felipe Ruiz del Corral \"of the College of St. Thomas of Guatemala\", Canon and Dean 1604 to 1636, and his Arte y Vocabulario para uso de los Curas de Guatemala); PA31 (Fr. Ildefonso Joseph Flores, native of Guatemala, Franciscan, \"Professor of the Kachiquel language in the University of San Carlos in the city of Guatemala\", died 1772, and his Arte de la lengua metropolitana del reyno Cakchiquel, Guatemala, Sebastian de Arebalo, 1753, 387 pp.); PA51-PA52 (Francisco Ximenez, his Arte comparativa of Cakchiquel, Quiche and Tzutuhil \"now in the University of Guatemala\", and the manuscript of Las historias del origen de los indios in the university library, published at Vienna in 1857 by the Imperial Academy of Sciences from Carl Scherzer's copy)." }, { "id": "vinaza-timuquana-imprints", "title": "Conde de la Viñaza, Bibliografía española de lenguas indígenas de América — the Timuquana entries (numbers 134-140, 163) and the Apalachina article", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=a-AZAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA80", "publisher": "Cipriano Muñoz y Manzano, conde de la Viñaza; Madrid, Sucesores de Rivadeneyra, 1892. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id a-AZAAAAMAAJ)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The Madrid 1892 descriptive bibliography, read as page scans on 2026-08-13 for the Florida imprints, and registered separately from the volume-level entry because it is scoped to different pages. The genre limitation stated in that entry holds here too - many entries rest on catalogues and correspondents rather than on a copy the compiler handled, and the Timuquana entries name their authorities (León Pinelo, Nicolás Antonio, Beristain, Ludewig, Icazbalceta, Menéndez Pelayo, Civezza) beneath each item. Pages opened and read - PA80, entries 134 and 135 (two 1612 catechisms from the press of the widow of Pedro Balli, by C. Adriano Cesar), 136 (the 1612 Confessionario) and 137 (the 1613 Confessionario of the widow of Diego López Dávalos, with its collation and the woodcut described on the verso of the title page); PA81, the licence of the president and oidores of the Audiencia of New Spain quoting Pareja's own account of sixteen years of work, the list of approbations signed at Havana and at San Agustín de la Florida in 1610, the matter at pages 218 and 226 verso of the 1613 book, and the note that the Madrid copy lacks the eight leaves of signature A; PA82, entry 140, the Arte y pronunciacion of 1614 printed by Ioan Ruyz, with its collation and the manuscript leaves that continue it; PA83 and PA84, the neighbouring entries, including 146, the 1617 Catecismo; PA90, entry 163, Gregorio de Movilla's Madrid 1631 Explicacion de la doctrina cristiana in \"Lengua Tinqua de la Florida\"; PA337, the article \"Apalachina, Tumuquana ó Timuquana\" in the catalogue of languages." }, { "id": "ludewig-timucua-and-tinqua", "title": "Hermann E. Ludewig, The Literature of American Aboriginal Languages — the Timuiquana notice (page 188) and the \"TIMUACA, TIMUQUANA\" and \"TINQUA\" articles (page 242)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=BA9bAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA242", "publisher": "London, Trubner and Co., 1858, with additions and corrections by Wm. W. Turner, edited by Nicolas Trubner. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id BA9bAAAAcAAJ)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Registered separately from the volume-level entry and scoped to the Florida pages read on 2026-08-13. Reliability stays at the 0.75 the volume-level entry argues for - a compilation made at second hand from catalogues and correspondence, left unrevised at the compiler's death, and demonstrably inconsistent on dates. Its value here is independence: it was compiled in New York and completed in London and is not derived from the Spanish bibliography it is used to check. Pages opened and read - PA188, the grammars and vocabularies of the language, \"Gramatica de la Lengua Timuiquana de Florida, por Fr. Francisco Pareja. Mexico, 1614\", the Confesonario of 1612 and the Catecismo of 1617, and the statement that Pareja was a native of Toledo and one of the founders of the Franciscan order in Santa Elena; PA242, the article \"TIMUACA, TIMUQUANA\" with the complete titles of the 1613 Confessionario (12mo, 238 leaves) and of the \"Cathecismo y Examen para los que comulgan\" printed at Mexico by Juan Ruyz in 1627, the notice of a grammar, dictionary and catechism of 1642 by P. Andres Vito mentioned in Barcia's edition of Pinelo but not known to have been printed, and the separate article \"TINQUA\" recording Movilla's Madrid 1631 printing and a Mexico 1635 reprint." }, { "id": "rincon-arte-mexicana-1885-reimpresion", "title": "Arte mexicana compuesta por el padre Antonio del Rincon de la compañia de Iesus (Mexico: Pedro Balli, 1595), reimpresion de 1885", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=SG-qaflMeu0C&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Antonio del Rincon, S.J.; printed at Mexico by Pedro Balli, 1595. Reprinted at Mexico, Oficina Tipografica de la Secretaria de Fomento, calle de San Andres num. 15, 1885, under the care of Dr Antonio Peñafiel; copy sent to the Uruguayan exchange office, digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The 1595 Mexico text, at one remove: reliability is set below the tier because what was read is the 1885 line-for-line reprint, not the sheets Pedro Balli pulled. Page images opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-13 at 1800px width. PP5 the printed wrapper of the reprint (\"GRAMATICA Y VOCABULARIO MEXICANOS por el padre Antonio del Rincon, 1595, REIMPRESION DE 1885\"); PA1 the facsimile title page (\"dirigido al illustrissimo y reuerendissimo S. don Diego Romano obispo de Tlaxcallan, y del consejo de su magestad. En Mexico en casa de Pedro, Balli. 1595\"); PA7 the two licences — the viceroy Luis de Velasco at Mexico, 9 June 1595, reciting that the Arte was \"vista y examinada por el bachiller Pedro Ponce de Leon vicario del pueblo de Çumpauacan\" and reserving the printing to Pedro Balli \"sopena de perder los moldes y lo que ymprimiere\", and the Jesuit provincial Esteuan Paez, Mexico, 28 March 1595; PA9 the dedication and prologue, with the author's \"Diez años ha, que e estado recogiendo, y poniendo en orden estos preceptos de la Gramatica Mexicana\"; PA66 the section \"Vltimo de la pronunciacion del saltillo\"; PA68 the section \"De la mutacion de letras\"; PA70 the appendix of minimal pairs distinguished by length and saltillo. The volume as digitised has no search layer, so the pages were located by anchoring click3 at each pid." }, { "id": "penafiel-introduccion-arte-mexicana-1885", "title": "Introduccion to the 1885 reprint of Antonio del Rincon's Arte mexicana", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=SG-qaflMeu0C&pg=PA3", "publisher": "Antonio Peñafiel, encargado de la Direccion general de Estadistica de la Republica Mexicana; Mexico, Oficina Tipografica de la Secretaria de Fomento, dated Mexico, August 1885", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Nineteenth-century editorial matter bound in front of the reprint registered here as rincon-arte-mexicana-1885-reimpresion, and registered separately because it is a compilation of earlier authorities rather than sixteenth-century evidence. Read as page scans 2026-08-13: PA3 the opening of the introduction (the reprint series and its purpose, the ranking of the Arte beside Olmos 1547 and Carochi 1645, and the statement that the copy reprinted belonged to the Biblioteca de la Sociedad de Geografia y Estadistica); PA4 the collation taken from Garcia Icazbalceta's Apuntes (Mexico, 1866, pp. 60-61) and the biographical notices quoted from Beristain and from Francisco Javier Alegre's Historia de la Compañia de Jesus en Nueva España (Mexico, 1841, I p. 73); PA5 the close of the notice attributed to \"P. Oviedo\" and Peñafiel's signature, Mexico, August 1885. Reliability reflects that Peñafiel is quoting eighteenth- and nineteenth-century compilers, one of them a hagiographic order history, not documents he re-examined." }, { "id": "ordenanzas-hospicio-real-de-oviedo-1752", "title": "Ordenanzas aprobadas por S.M. para el regimen, y govierno del Hospicio, y Hospital Real de Huerfanos, Expositos, y Desamparados … en la ciudad de Oviedo capital del Principado de Asturias, con una narracion historial del origen, progresos, y estado actual de dicho Hospicio", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=pqx2rLmdp7IC&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Hospicio y Hospital Real de Huerfanos, Expositos y Desamparados de Oviedo, 1752; dedicated to Fernando VI by the hand of Don Cenon de Somodevilla, Marques de la Ensenada. Printer and place of printing not legible on the copy read; date from the volume record. Biblioteca del Colegio Notarial copy, digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The printed ordinances of a royal poor-house, with a first-person narrative of its erection prefixed. Reliability is set below the tier because the narrative is the self-account of the minister promoting the foundation, addressed to the secretary of state who had to fund it. Page images read as page scans on 2026-08-13 at 1800px width: PA1 the title page; PA2 the dedication to the king; PA5 the dedication to Ensenada with his offices in full; PA7 the head of the \"Origen, progresos, y estado actual del Hospicio\", where the writer names the three ills he means to treat — \"la mendicidad fingida\", \"la falta de disciplina en la verdadera\" and \"la despoblacion\"; PA11 the passage on foundling mortality and on the abandonment \"hasta aora vergonzosamente practicado, de los Huerfanos, y Expositos\"; PA13 the argument from marriage and population, citing the Junta de reformacion and Saavedra Fajardo's device \"Ex fascibus fasces\"; PA25 the scriptural case against the feigned poor and the notices of the Hospicio de Madrid and of the wheat assigned monthly to the Casa de Misericordia by the archbishop of Zaragoza; PA40 the recital that the house opened on the first day of the year after a public pregon, that those who did not enter voluntarily \"serian llevados con apremio\", and that the remedy had not extinguished idleness. The volume as digitised has no search layer; pages were located by anchoring click3 at each pid." }, { "id": "chinchilla-anales-medicina-espanola-tomo-iv-1846", "title": "Anales históricos de la medicina en general, y biográfico-bibliográficos de la española en particular: historia de la medicina española", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=mUdHAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA419", "publisher": "Anastasio Chinchilla; Valencia, imprenta de López y compañía, 1846. Full-view digitisation, Google Books. The digitised volume binds two tomos together; the second block carries the running head 'Hist. de la Medic. Española. — Tomo 4.º' and its pages are addressed as RA1-PA…", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-13: PA419 and PA420, which carry the life of Pedro Virgili and, in the column above it, Chinchilla's abstract of Antoni Gimbernat's \"Breve historia de los establecimientos de los colegios en España\" — itself taken, as Chinchilla says on the page, from Torres y Amat pp. 289-291; and RA1-PA185, the four-line notice on Francisco Javier Balmis. Chinchilla is a nineteenth-century Valencian physician compiling a patriotic biographical-bibliographical history of Spanish medicine, working from printed books and earlier compilers rather than from archives. He does quote his intermediaries by page, which is what makes the Gimbernat passage usable at all. Reliability is set well below the tier because the work is a compilation at one or two removes, because its stated purpose is to establish Spanish priority, and because its notices are uneven — the Balmis entry is four lines long and states a Valencia university training in medicine, so objects citing it report that as Chinchilla's account rather than as settled fact." }, { "id": "canivell-vendages-y-apositos-1763", "title": "Tratado de vendages, y apositos para el uso de los Reales Colegios de Cirugia, ilustrado con diez laminas", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=nheJcEQPUEMC&pg=PP9", "publisher": "Por Don Francisco Canivell, ayudante de cirujano mayor de la Real Armada, y maestro de el Real Colegio de Cirugia de Cadiz. Con licencia. Barcelona, en la imprenta de Teresa Piferrer viuda, en la Plaza del Angel, año 1763. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-13: the title page (PP9) and both pages of the author's dedicatory letter (PP11 and PP12). A trap worth recording for the next run on this volume: PP7 is a flyleaf through which the title page shows in mirror image, and PP8 is its blank verso — a reading taken off the show-through gets the printer's name wrong, since the bleed-through reads as \"Teresa Gibert\" where the title page itself prints \"Teresa Piferrer viuda\". The letter is the evidential core of the source. It records that the author had explained the treatise in the college, that he was charged with writing it by a deliberation held in the house, that there were many learned masters there, that the book was published for the use of the collegians and expressly not for masters of the profession, that the ten plates had to be drawn and engraved by one of the collegians in the hours his duties left free, and that the college assembly thanked the dedicatee for seeing the impression through the press at Barcelona. Reliability is set below 0.9 because a dedicatory letter is a courtesy genre whose self-deprecation is partly conventional; what it lets slip about the institution is worth more than what it says about itself." }, { "id": "martinez-vidal-pardo-tomas-2005-anatomical-theatres", "title": "Anatomical theatres and the teaching of anatomy in early modern Spain", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1172289/", "publisher": "Medical History 49(3):251-280, 2005, Cambridge University Press (open access via PubMed Central)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Àlvar Martínez-Vidal and José Pardo-Tomás, DOI 10.1017/s0025727300008875, PMID 16092787. Full text read on 2026-08-13. Peer-reviewed survey built on university statutes, municipal contracts, appointment terms and building records for Salamanca, Valladolid, Alcalá, Barcelona, Valencia, Saragossa and Madrid, distinguishing a Castilian model driven by royal intervention from an Aragonese one built on hospital, guild and university together. The article is explicitly revisionist against the older historiography of Spanish resistance to dissection, so its thesis is reported as the authors' finding and its dated contracts, measurements and quoted statutes are the parts carried at higher confidence. It is a study of metropolitan Spain and says nothing whatever about the Americas; it mentions the royal colleges of surgery only once, for the siting of the Barcelona college of 1760." }, { "id": "recopilacion-1791-libro-iv-positos-y-alhondigas", "title": "Recopilación de leyes de los reynos de las Indias … Quarta impresión, Tomo Segundo — Libro IIII, títulos XIII (De los Propios, y Pósitos) y XIIII (De las Alhóndigas)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=1W3nyXa9I7YC&pg=PA48", "publisher": "Madrid, por la Viuda de D. Joaquín Ibarra, impresora del Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias, 1791. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "A second full-view copy of the fourth impression, tomo II (the running foot at PA51 reads \"Tom. II\"). Page images PA45-PA51 opened and read on 2026-08-13. Libro IIII título XIII \"De los Propios, y Pósitos\" supplied ley ij (cities not to spend above three thousand maravedís extraordinary nor set salaries without licence, Felipe II Madrid 4 October 1564), ley iij (rents and propios to be auctioned to the highest bidder, previous lessees barred from pre-empting, 1568/1581), ley iiij (nothing from the propios to be spent on receiving prelates, presidents, oidores or ministers, \"en fiestas, comidas, ni hospedages\", pena de mil ducados, 1574/1596/1627), ley vj (viceroys to have the propios accounts taken every year and send the reason to the Council, 16 May 1573), ley vij (an oidor by annual turn to review the cabildo's accounts, Ordenanza de Audiencias de 1563), ley viij (an oidor present at the auction of the provision of meat and candles, 18 August 1593), ley x (mourning for the deaths of royal persons paid from the propios, 9 June 1584) and ley xj (nothing to be taken out of the pósitos by royal officials or ministers \"sino se ofreciere tan urgente necesidad\", and then paid for at once, Felipe III Madrid 6 May 1614). Título XIIII \"De las Alhóndigas\" supplied ley j, the foundation of the Alhóndiga of Mexico (Felipe II, Madrid 31 March 1583, margin \"Ordenanza de Alhóndiga de México\"), ley ij (the Fiel, his four thousand pesos of bond, residence in the house, and the rule that the first price of the day stands all day), ley viij (carters and muleteers to go straight to the Alhóndiga and bring a magistrate's testimony of where and at what price they bought), ley viiij (sworn declaration whether the grain is own harvest or bought), ley x (grain not sold within twenty days to be sold by order of the Justicia at the current price), ley xj (nobody to enter the Alhóndiga armed), ley xij (porters not to charge above a quartillo de plata, or twenty-five cacaos, per sack of a fanega and a half), ley xiij (farmer-bakers to declare on oath their harvest and daily bake) and ley xiiij, Ordenanza 13 (two Regidores Diputados to sit in the Alhóndiga daily from eight to eleven and from two until business ends, judging breaches, with appeal to the Cabildo)." }, { "id": "memoria-economica-municipalidad-de-mexico-1830", "title": "Memoria económica de la municipalidad de México, formada de órden del Exmo. Ayuntamiento", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=dLljAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA15", "publisher": "Ayuntamiento de la Ciudad de México, 30 December 1830. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "A printed report of the city's revenue branches drawn up by a commission of the ayuntamiento and dated 30 December 1830; 176 pages. Page images PA13 and PA15-PA18 opened and read on 2026-08-13. PA13 carries the section \"SEGUNDA. DE ALUMBRADO\", with the 1790 order to propose arbitrios for the \"perpetua permanencia y conservación del iluminado general\", the calculation of lanterns, wages of chiefs of lighting and of serenos and arrobas of oil, the proposal of 4 October 1790 to the \"memorable conde de Revillagigedo\" of three reales on each carga de harina entering the capital, the estimate of about one hundred thousand cargas yielding 37,500 pesos a year, the first cost of the lanterns and utensils at 35,429 pesos 6 tomines 6 granos, and the argument that spread over the 430 loaves a carga of flour yields the charge came to about a quarter of an ounce of bread each. PA15-PA17 carry \"TERCERA. LA DE TRES CUARTILLAS\" (quoting ley 17, título 14, libro 4 of the Recopilación on the three cuartillas per fanega of wheat and barley and per quintal of flour entering the Alhóndiga, \"que ha de ser para gastos de la Alhóndiga y Pósito de la ciudad\"), the statement that the purpose of the pósito charge was \"comprar maiz en tiempo de escaseces y venderlo al pueblo bajo del precio mas equitativo\", the arca del pósito de tres llaves held by the corregidor, the diputado del pósito and the tesorero, the note that the renta had never yielded above eight thousand pesos a year when farmed, Gálvez's articles 26-28 moving its collection to the city treasury, the abolition of the pósito and the bando of 7 January 1813 ending the pension, and the bando of 14 May 1819 in which the conde del Venadito restored it \"sin mas variacion que la de destinarse al alumbrado\". PA17-PA18 carry \"CUARTA. PENSION DE ALHONDIGA\": Gálvez's articles 30-38, all maize entering the capital to be sold in the Alhóndiga or its dependent public stalls on pain of forfeiture, the garita guards checking the boletas of the carriers for three hundred pesos a year, the half-real per carga of maize sold, the alcaide's book \"Entrada y venta de particulares\", the monthly certification by the escribano, the entry into the arca of the Alhóndiga on the first of each month, article 37 keeping the maize product separate from the three cuartillas, and the commission's own figure of 98,178 cargas of maize a year producing 6,136 pesos 1 real. PA18 also opens \"QUINTA. PENSION DE CARNES\" with the fourteen meat tables paying sixty pesos each, the 1,200 pesos taken out under a cédula of 12 February 1761 and shared among the regidores as \"propina de carnicería\", and Gálvez's order that the whole 8,400 pesos enter the propios account and the propina be withdrawn from the capitulares." }, { "id": "galvez-informe-marques-de-sonora-documentos-1867", "title": "Informe del Marqués de Sonora al virrey D. Antonio Bucarely y Ursúa — sección de Documentos (estados de propios y rentas de las ciudades)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=-suqC_rJU0EC&pg=PA314", "publisher": "Printed edition of 1867 of José de Gálvez's report to viceroy Bucareli; 470 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Title page read at PA1 — \"INFORME DEL MARQUÉS DE SONORA AL VIRREY D. ANTONIO BUCARELY Y URSUA\". Page images PA313-PA316 and PA319 of the documentary section, running head \"DOCUMENTOS\", opened and read on 2026-08-13. The statement for the city of Mexico gives the pósito \"Su Dote consiste en las tres quartillas que paga de entrada toda carga de trigo, Harina y Cebada, cuyo producto asciende á doce mil y quinientos pesos\"; the sisa at three pesos one real per barrel of aguardiente and wine and twelve and a half reales per barrel of vinegar, 30,000 pesos; obras públicas at 7,200 pesos from the fourteen meat tables plus 250 from the abasto contractor for the causeway of San Antonio Abad; and a \"UNION DE CAUDALES\" adding propios, pósito 12,500, sisa 50,000 and obras públicas 7,450 to a \"Total de las Rentas Públicas\" of 108,669 pesos. The salary list that follows names the Juez Superintendente at 500 pesos, fifteen Regidores at 33 pesos each, the Corregidor as president of the Junta de Policía at 550, two Diputados de Propios at 300 each, the Procurador General, the Obrero mayor, the Juez de Aguas at 300 each, the Alcaide de la Alameda at 200, \"A los dos Diputados del Posito y Alhondiga, á razon de ciento y cincuenta pesos cada uno\", the Juez Superintendente de Chapultepec at 400, the Tesorero de Propios at 2,300, the Recaudador de tres quartillas at 750 and the two fieles Repesadores at 400. PA319 carries the equivalent statement of another city (its salary list names a chaplain of the \"Nueva Ciudad\" and an agent resident \"en esta de México\", so it is not the capital): total product of propios 13,410 pesos 1 real 6 granos, of which the Alhóndiga yielded 1,000 pesos and the carnicerías 2,258, against salaries including a Procurador de Pobres at 100 pesos and an Alférez Real given 1,000 pesos of ayuda de costa \"para sufragar á los crecidos gastos del Pendon\". The volume is a nineteenth-century printing of an eighteenth-century report, so the transcription is trusted at 0.8 rather than at the level of a contemporary imprint." }, { "id": "azcarate-memoria-policia-urbana-mexico-1864", "title": "Memoria de los principales ramos de la policía urbana y de los fondos de la Ciudad de México presentada á la Serenísima Regencia del Imperio", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=cAhEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA49", "publisher": "Miguel María de Azcárate, Prefectura Municipal de la Ciudad de México; México, Imprenta de J. M. Andrade y F. Escalante, 1864. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The municipal prefect's printed report of 1864, 304 pages. Page images PA49-PA51 opened and read on 2026-08-13. Section VII \"ALUMBRADO\" reports the commission entrusted to Regidor Joaquín Ortiz Cervantes; that a contract let under supreme orders was rescinded at the contractor's own request because the price fixed for the light was above what it cost the fund under the regidor's direct administration; and the standing cost of light, itemised — 1,203 oil lanterns at 2¼ centavos a night, 842 pesos 10 centavos a month; 377 lamps \"de la invencion de Bagally\" burning turpentine at 5¾ centavos, 650 pesos 32½ a month; 334 lamps \"de la invencion de Green\" at 4½ centavos, 404 pesos 97¼ a month; 1,897 pesos 39¾ a month and 22,768 pesos 77 centavos a year for the light alone. It then quotes article 5 of the supreme decree of 5 January of that year granting D. Juan Potts the exclusive privilege of lighting the city with gas at 17 centavos per lamp-night on a basis of three cubic feet an hour, and calculates that lighting the same 1,914 lanterns by gas would cost 115,794 pesos 60¾ centavos a year net of the 2½ per cent rebate — a difference of 93,025 pesos 83¾, \"poco más del cuádruplo de lo que hoy cuesta\"." }, { "id": "instrucciones-vireyes-nueva-espana-1867-bolanos", "title": "Instrucciones que los vireyes de Nueva España dejaron á sus sucesores — instrucción del conde de Revillagigedo and the decree erecting the Real de Bolaños", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5vWPUgO5TQC&pg=PA46", "publisher": "México, Imprenta Imperial, 1867; 332 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Page images PA44-PA48 opened and read on 2026-08-13, under the running head \"INSTRUCCIONES DEL CONDE DE REVILLAGIGEDO\" (the first conde, viceroy 1746-1755). Used for the decree erecting the Real de Bolaños into a separate jurisdiction, which states that its people suffered \"grandes vejaciones en la carestía de los víveres, por no haber habido hasta ahora peso, medida, regla ni tasa en su venta, ni cuidado en la provision, por falta de alhóndiga y carnicería\", and which lists among the powers thereby granted \"su establecimiento, obras públicas, administracion de sus propios y rentas, señalamiento de ellos, abastos, pósito y alhóndiga, nombramiento de jueces y oficios públicos\". A nineteenth-century printing of eighteenth-century documents, trusted at 0.8 for that reason." }, { "id": "fonseca-urrutia-real-hacienda-i", "title": "Historia general de Real Hacienda, tomo I — the general Introduccion, pages XXIII-XXV and XXXVII", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=2DxKAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR24", "publisher": "Escrita por D. Fabian de Fonseca y D. Carlos de Urrutia por orden del virey conde de Revillagigedo; Mexico, impresa por Vicente G. Torres, calle del Espiritu Santo num. 2, 1845. Tomo I. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-13 - the title page (PP7) and the Introduccion at pages XXIII, XXIV, XXV and XXXVII, which carry the itemised overseas consignments charged on the treasury of New Spain, their stated total of 3,011,664 pesos, the residue of 5,843,438 pesos left to the kingdom, and the 3,361,328 pesos 7 reales remitted annually to Spain from tobacco, mercury and playing cards. This is a different volume from the already registered fonseca-urrutia-real-hacienda-iv - same work and imprint, first tome, separate Google volume id. Two royal treasury officials compiling from the Mexican treasury archive under the viceroy who commissioned them, unpublished until 1845; the figures are what the administration ordered and accounted, not independently audited receipts, and reliability is set below the tier for that reason. The Introduccion prints two parallel text streams, a main one and a smaller-type one running below the rule, whose enumerations do not agree in every particular." }, { "id": "pandectas-hispano-mejicanas-1839-t1", "title": "Pandectas hispano-megicanas, o sea codigo general, tomo I — title III, De los cimenterios de las iglesias: entierro y funeral de los difuntos, numbers 238-239 and 252-253", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=kdNMAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA112", "publisher": "Impreso en la oficina de Mariano Galvan Rivera, Mexico, 1839. Tomo I, 896 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-13 - pages 112, 113, 114, 115 and 120. A Mexican compilation of the Spanish and colonial law held to be in force, printing royal texts in full. At number 238 the compiler states in a nota that in place of the law he prints the royal cedula of April 1787 \"cual fue comunicada al virey\", so the text read here is the cedula as transmitted to New Spain, at one remove from the original despatch and framed by a compiler of 1839. It carries the complete six articles of the cedula of 3 April 1787 with its dating clause and signatories, the real orden of the conde de Floridablanca to the archbishop of Mexico of 29 June 1791, the seven rules circulated in 1804, the Council circular of 18 April 1806 on the Sisante fee dispute, and the real cedula of 16 April 1819 extending the reform to the Indies. Page 120 dates the peninsular cedula 1786 in one line and 1787 in another; the printed cedula itself says 1787." }, { "id": "case-of-the-pious-fund-1902-us", "title": "The Case of the Pious Fund of the Californias — Statement of Facts, pages 7, 8 and 10", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=U_egAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA8", "publisher": "United States; Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1902. 140 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.65, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-13 - pages 7, 8 and 10. This is the printed case of one party, the United States, before the arbitral tribunal at The Hague in 1902 in its claim against Mexico. Its Statement of Facts narrates the Spanish period of the endowment and cites a transcript of record by page for each recital, quoting the foundation deed of 8 June 1735 at length and the crown's formula of subrogation after the expulsion of the Jesuits. It is an advocacy document and is used here only for the recitals and quotations it makes, not for the conclusions it draws; reliability is set well below the tier accordingly, and the claims resting on it are pitched at or below 0.8." }, { "id": "galvan-ordenanzas-1849-pueblos-de-indios", "title": "Chapter XII, De las fundaciones de los pueblos de indios, in Ordenanzas de tierras y aguas, o sea formulario geometrico-judicial", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=pB5LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA97", "publisher": "Mariano Galvan Rivera, Mexico, Libreria del Portal de Mercaderes, 1849 (208 pp.). Full-view digitisation, Google Books, volume id pB5LAAAAYAAJ", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "A Mexican surveyor's and judge's manual of 1849 that reprints, inside its own instructions, the colonial law on the land base of indigenous towns. Pages PA96 to PA107 were opened as page scans on 2026-08-13. What is on them: the practical instruction for founding and measuring a pueblo de indios (PA96); the citation of the cedula of Carlos V given at Cigales, 21 March 1551, and of the ordinance on new settlements of Felipe II, articles 34 to 36 (PA97-PA98); the cedula of 1 December 1573 requiring an egido of one league (PA99); the full text of the royal cedula of 4 June 1687 raising the pueblo grant from the 500 varas of the viceroy Marques de Falces's ordinance of 26 May 1567 to 600, measured from the last house (PA100-PA101); the counter-petition of the labradores and the royal cedula of Madrid, 12 July 1695, moving the measuring point back to the church (PA103-PA104); and the transcribed leyes 12 tit. XII lib. 4 (Valladolid, 12 March 1550) and 20 tit. III lib. 6 (10 October 1618) on keeping livestock estancias away from indigenous fields (PA105). A compilation, not the original sheets: the cedulas are read as Galvan prints them, and he says himself that he does not copy the 1567 ordinance literally because the 1687 cedula reproduces it." }, { "id": "galvan-ordenanzas-1849-ventas-de-tierras-1781", "title": "Instruccion sobre las ventas y enagenaciones de tierra de indios, Mexico, 23 February 1781, as printed in Ordenanzas de tierras y aguas", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=pB5LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA108", "publisher": "Mariano Galvan Rivera, Mexico, Libreria del Portal de Mercaderes, 1849 (208 pp.). Full-view digitisation, Google Books, volume id pB5LAAAAYAAJ", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The text of the instruction issued by the real audiencia of Mexico on 23 February 1781, printed at PA107 to PA112 and read as page scans on 2026-08-13. Carries the recital of prior decrees of 20 July 1778 and 23 December 1780 under viceroy Bucareli; the prohibition of all sales, loans, pledges and leases of indigenous land, community and privately inherited alike, without licence of the superior government, the juzgado general de naturales or the audiencia; the penalty of 500 pesos and loss of office on notaries and district justices, with nullity of the instrument; publication by bando in Castilian and in the language proper to the district; extension to the parcialidades of San Juan and Santiago inside the capital; the signatures of Martin de Mayorga and Diego Antonio Fernandez Madrid; and the certificate of Francisco Arteaga, Mexico, 2 November 1816, stating that the copy was drawn for the nullity case over the sale of the rancho of Pena Blanca by the naturales of Cochiti, remitted to the audiencia of Guadalajara. The same pages carry the instruction's own contemptuous vocabulary about the people it protects, which is quoted rather than paraphrased in the object." }, { "id": "galvan-ordenanzas-1849-reglamento-aguas-1761", "title": "Reglamento general de las medidas de las aguas, publicado en el ano de 1761, with the editor's chapter XXIII on water measures, in Ordenanzas de tierras y aguas", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=pB5LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA151", "publisher": "Mariano Galvan Rivera, Mexico, Libreria del Portal de Mercaderes, 1849 (208 pp.). Full-view digitisation, Google Books, volume id pB5LAAAAYAAJ", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Pages PA150 to PA153 and PA157 to PA181 opened as page scans on 2026-08-13. Chapter XXIII defines the legal water measures - buey, surco, naranja, real, paja - with their dimensions in varas, dedos and pulgadas and their equivalences (a buey is 48 surcos, 144 naranjas, 1152 reales, 20736 pajas; the municipal toma of Mexico City is five pajas), followed by two tables of rectilinear and circular datas. PA157 carries the editor's note that the Reglamento of 1761 was licensed for the press by viceroy the Marques de Cruillas by decree of 16 April 1761 on the parecer of Felipe de Zuniga y Ontiveros, that it is the only thing printed in this branch, and that it had guided water business for 88 years. The reprinted Reglamento itself runs from PA157: water as a royal regalia (PA158-PA159), the 1754 cedula of San Lorenzo el Real of 15 October (PA159), Avendano's Thesaurus Indicus and Solorzano cited as the doctrine for the Indies (PA158-PA160), the vocabulary of the hydrometric trade and the aquiliges or hydromensores (PA162- PA163), and the interdict De aqua pluviale arcenda (PA163). PA177-PA178 carry Galvan's own engineering correction: rectangular openings are to be preferred to circular ones, and a salto in front of each data equalises velocity so that a steeper channel does not draw more than its share." }, { "id": "tapia-zenteno-noticia-lengua-huasteca-1767", "title": "Carlos de Tapia Zenteno, Noticia de la lengua huasteca, con cathecismo y doctrina christiana... y copioso diccionario (Mexico, 1767)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=rR9UklX2DDwC", "publisher": "Imprenta de la Bibliotheca Mexicana, en el Puente del Espiritu-Santo, Mexico, 1767. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id rR9UklX2DDwC, 146 pages)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The only printed grammar, catechism, sacramental manual and dictionary of Huastec produced in colonial Mexico. Read as page images on 2026-08-13: title page (PP5), the approval of Br. Matheo de Herrera dated 18 October 1746 (PP9), the licence of the superior government (PP12), the author's address \"Al estudiante aplicado\" (PP13-PP14) with the account of the printing delay, the 1570 cartilla, the Mexican council of October 1585 and the 1689 reprint, the pages on pronunciation and the alphabet (PA1-PA4), the close of the grammar (PA47) and one opening of the confessionario with the questions for the Mandones (PA114). Primary for its own text; the dictionary was not read entry by entry and the catechism and Enchiridion were not read through." }, { "id": "bascongada-extractos-juntas-generales-1772", "title": "Extractos de las juntas generales celebradas por la Real Sociedad Bascongada de los Amigos del Pais en la villa de Bilbao por Setiembre de 1772", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=kb5dAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "Tomas de Robles, 1772. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id kb5dAAAAcAAJ, 178 pages)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The society's own printed proceedings for the general assemblies of September 1772. Read as page images on 2026-08-13: the business of the Junta General of day 20 and the vote of thanks to the Caracas Company and the Casa de Contratacion of San Sebastian (PA9-PA10), the public examinations of the seminary's pupils (PA11), the inoculation pieces including Atilano Calleja's treatise with five observations made in Havana and Cartagena (PA64-PA65), the schools commission on emigration to Cadiz and America (PA96) and a page of the members' catalogue with residences at Jalapa de la Nueva España, Manila and La Habana (PA138). Primary for the society's proceedings, but it is the body reporting on itself, hence reliability 0.8." }, { "id": "bascongada-estatutos-aprobados-por-sm", "title": "Estatutos aprobados por S. M. para gobierno de la Real Sociedad Bascongada de los Amigos del Pais", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=r3jboE5DluoC", "publisher": "Vitoria, por Tomas de Robles, Impresor de la misma Sociedad. No year on the title page; catalogued as 1773. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id r3jboE5DluoC, 142 pages)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The society's constitution as printed, opening with the royal cedula of Carlos III. Read as page images on 2026-08-13: the title page with the IRURAC BAT device and the Vitoria imprint (PP5), and the first page of the cedula (PA1) with the statement that the members petitioned for licence because the laws prohibited forming unions and holding assemblies without one. The title page carries no date; the year 1773 is the digitisation's catalogue record and is reported as such." }, { "id": "navarrete-coleccion-viages-tomo-v-1837", "title": "Martin Fernandez de Navarrete, Coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los Españoles desde fines del siglo XV, tomo V: Expediciones al Maluco, viages de Loaisa y de Saavedra (Madrid, 1837)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=FxRmRrgkS58C", "publisher": "De orden de S. M., Madrid, en la Imprenta Nacional, 1837. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id FxRmRrgkS58C, 512 pages)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The fifth volume of the official Spanish documentary edition of the voyages. Read as page images on 2026-08-13: the half-title (PP5), the title page (PA1), the opening of the editor's extract of the Loaisa navigation with the fleet table and the toneles/toneladas note (PA3), and document number X, the sworn relation of Francisco Davila, with its archival citation to the Archivo de Indias in Seville and its marginal date of 4 June 1527 (PA225). Primary for the documents it transcribes; the editor's preliminary discourse in the first volume of 1825 was not opened, so no claim is made about the series as a whole." }, { "id": "storey-2007-el-arenal-chicken", "title": "Radiocarbon and DNA evidence for a pre-Columbian introduction of Polynesian chickens to Chile", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1965514/", "publisher": "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 104(25):10335-10339 (2007), National Academy of Sciences. Read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The paper that opened the dispute. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-13, body, table 1 and discussion present. One directly dated chicken bone from El Arenal-1 on the Arauco Peninsula, Chile - \"The radiocarbon date obtained for the El Arenal chicken bone was 622 +/- 35 B.P., resulting in a calibrated age range of AD 1321-1407\"; at two sigma AD 1304-1424. Fifty chicken bones from the site, minimum five birds. Also quoted for its statement of the orthodox view it set out to displace - \"most scholars believe the chicken was introduced to the New World by Spanish or Portuguese explorers when they arrived on the east coast around AD 1500\" - and for the observation that Pizarro in 1532 \"found that chickens were already an integral part of Incan economy and culture\". Reliability is set below the corpus norm for a peer-reviewed paper because its central result is contested in print by three later studies registered here." }, { "id": "gongora-2008-chilean-pacific-chickens-mtdna", "title": "Indo-European and Asian origins for Chilean and Pacific chickens revealed by mtDNA", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2492461/", "publisher": "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 105(30):10308-10313 (2008), National Academy of Sciences. Read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The first published rebuttal. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-13. Verbatim passages used - \"The position of the single Chilean pre-Columbian chicken sequence within the worldwide distributed haplotype 8 removes any genetic support for a Polynesian introduction of this haplotype to South America\"; \"we consider the clustering of the modern Chilean chicken sequences with haplotypes predominant in Europe to indicate the contribution of Spanish introduced chickens\"; and, on the date, \"it is also worth noting that the radiocarbon-dating laboratory used to date the El Arenal-1 sample has recently been suggested to have overestimated the age of zooarchaeological bones elsewhere in the Pacific\". The authors are an interested party in the dispute and their marine-carbon argument is modelling, not measurement, which is why claims resting on it are carried below 0.8." }, { "id": "thomson-2014-ancestral-polynesian-chickens", "title": "Using ancient DNA to study the origins and dispersal of ancestral Polynesian chickens across the Pacific", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3977275/", "publisher": "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 111(13):4826-4831 (2014), National Academy of Sciences. Read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Ancient DNA from 122 archaeological chicken samples across the Pacific. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-13. Verbatim - a cluster of mtDNA haplogroup D sequences \"defined by a diagnostic combination of four CR SNPs (which we term the 'ancestral Polynesian motif')\" represents the founding lineages carried across the Pacific, and \"No early South American chicken samples have been detected with the diagnostic Polynesian mtDNA haplotypes, arguing against reports that chickens provide evidence of Polynesian contact with pre-European South America\". The article page itself lists the three dissenting letters and the authors' reply published in PNAS at E3582-E3585, which is the evidence that the dispute did not end here." }, { "id": "storey-matisoo-smith-2014-reply-letter", "title": "No evidence against Polynesian dispersal of chickens to pre-Columbian South America", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4156719/", "publisher": "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 111(35):E3583 (2014), National Academy of Sciences. Read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.65, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "A one-page letter by two of the 2007 authors, registered so that the dispute can be shown as unresolved rather than closed. Read in full on 2026-08-13. It concedes nothing and makes two checkable points - that of the 15 haplotype E sequences identified in ancient Pacific chickens, 12 come from sites predating AD 1000, and that the contamination paper cited against them reports 1 chicken contaminant in 779 no-template control reactions. Tiered low and cited at low confidence because it is an unrefereed letter by an interested party; the authors' reply on the facing pages disagrees." }, { "id": "herrera-2020-south-american-chickens-mtdna", "title": "European and Asian contribution to the genetic diversity of mainland South American chickens", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7062093/", "publisher": "Royal Society Open Science 7(2):191558 (2020), The Royal Society. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The largest modern-DNA survey of the question and the source of the object's central figures. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-13. 229 native chickens sampled - 30 Brazil, 60 Chile, 129 Colombia, 10 Peru - against a worldwide comparative set. Verbatim - \"Haplogroup E is the most predominant mitochondrial CR region lineage observed in South America comprising 83.96% of all chickens on the continent\", with A at 7.35%, B at 4.68% and C at 4.00%; \"Haplogroup D has not been found in modern South American chickens in this study\"; \"Given the high frequency of this haplogroup in Europe along with the historical records and observations that Spanish and Portuguese brought chickens to the Americas, Europe may be the more likely source of modern chickens in South America\"; and the explicit limit, \"All we can say is that there is no evidence for Polynesian chicken genetic signatures being retained by contemporary South American chickens\", which \"does not discount the potential for a pre-Columbian introduction of chickens by the Polynesians to South America\"." }, { "id": "streit-2023-spanish-model-ten-lessons", "title": "Ten Lessons From the Spanish Model of Organ Donation and Transplantation", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10249502/", "publisher": "Transplant International 36:11009 (2023), Frontiers Media / European Society for Organ Transplantation. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Narrative review by a London School of Economics and Imperial College group with expert feedback from Daniel Casanova of the University Hospital Valdecilla. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-13. Used for the structure of the Spanish programme and for its own reservations - the three-tiered national, regional and hospital governance, dedicated in-hospital coordinators, tailored training including family-consultation skills, reimbursement, and the observations that Spain achieved 114.8 transplants per million population against 7.6 in Bulgaria before the pandemic while spending EUR 2488 per capita on health against an EU average of EUR 3523. The review is not neutral about weaknesses either - it states that countries reforming their systems \"should also introduce programs that support living donation, an area of the Spanish program with potential for further improvement\", and records the sharp fall in donation when ICU capacity was consumed by COVID-19. A narrative review, not a controlled comparison, which caps the confidence of causal claims bound to it." }, { "id": "shepherd-2014-optin-optout-panel", "title": "An international comparison of deceased and living organ donation/transplant rates in opt-in and opt-out systems: a panel study", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4175622/", "publisher": "BMC Medicine 12:131 (2014), BioMed Central. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Thirteen-year panel study of 48 countries with instrumental-variables analysis, registered as the counterweight to the popular explanation of Spain's results. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-13. Verbatim - \"Fabre and colleagues argue that because Spain's rise in organ donation rates occurred 10 years after the introduction of opt-out consent, such legislation is unlikely to play an immediate causal role. Spain's rise in donation rates occurred after the introduction of what is now known as the 'Spanish Model'. This involved creating a transplant coordination network that operated at different levels (hospital, regional and national level), placing transplant coordinators at each procurement hospital, and improving the quality of information\". Its own headline finding is double-edged and is quoted as such: \"opt-out consent may lead to an increase in deceased donation but a reduction in living donation rates\"." }, { "id": "barry-1826-notas-noticias-secretas", "title": "Editorial footnotes to Noticias secretas de America", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=nVtKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA254", "publisher": "David Barry; Londres, en la Imprenta de R. Taylor, 1826", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Registered separately from the report itself and from Barry's prologue, because the footnotes are signed \"El Editor\" and carry material from decades after Juan and Ulloa wrote. Read as a page scan on 2026-08-13 at PA254, where the note states that the repartimientos \"llegaron despues a tal exceso que en los corregimientos de mediana poblacion no bajaba de 100 mil pesos annualmente el principal de los generos, y en muchos pasaba de 150 mil, produciendo a cada Corregidor una ganancia de medio millon de pesos\", names the corregidores of Chayanta and Tinta as having made three repartimientos each in 1780, and ends that the abolition of the system \"fue el unico beneficio que produjo a los Indios esta rebelion, pues en todo lo demas quedaron aun mas oprimidos que antes\". An interested editor writing in London in 1826; every figure taken from him is carried at low confidence and attributed to him by name in the claim." }, { "id": "valdivia-arte-lengua-de-chile-1684", "title": "Luis de Valdivia, Arte, y gramatica general de la lengua que corre en todo el Reyno de Chile, con vn Vocabulario, y Confessonario (Sevilla, Thomas Lopez de Haro, 1684)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=BFNpAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "En Sevilla, por Thomas Lopez de Haro, Ano de 1684, con licencia. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id BFNpAAAAcAAJ)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-13. This is the Seville 1684 imprint, a later printing of the Arte first issued at Lima in 1606; the sheets opened here are the 1684 ones and no claim bound to this id should be read as an inspection of the 1606 Lima edition. Pages opened and read: PP1 and PP3, binding and marbled endpaper; PP5, the title page transcribed in claim c1; PP7, the dedication to Diego de Lara Escobar with the recital of his military offices; PP11, the \"AL LECTOR\" listing the four things that make the language easy; PA1, chapter I \"DE LA PRONVNCIACION, y Orthographia\" with the articulatory description of the sixth vowel. Reliability is set below the tier because the book is a missionary tool written to make preaching and confession possible, its judgements about the language serve that end, and the 1684 paratext is by the Seville editor rather than by Valdivia. The volume has a working search layer (jscmd=SearchWithinVolume), which is how PA1 and PP11 were located." }, { "id": "najera-desengano-y-reparo-1866", "title": "Alonso Gonzalez de Najera, Desengano y reparo de la guerra del reino de Chile, donde se manifiestan las principales ventajas que en ella tienen los Indios a nuestros Espanoles (Madrid, 1866)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=OiJJAAAAMAAJ", "publisher": "Madrid, imprenta de la viuda de Calero, 1866. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id OiJJAAAAMAAJ)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The nineteenth-century printing of a memorial written in 1614 by a soldier who states he served eight years in the Chilean war. Read as page scans on 2026-08-13: PA520, article XII \"Que se han de herrar los esclavos\", and the preceding paragraph on what the indios amigos are to be paid; PA533, chapter IV \"Primer camino para sacar los esclavos de Chile\". The title-page leaf was NOT opened - PP5 is a blank flyleaf carrying only a shelfmark - so the imprint above is taken from the volume's own Google Books feed metadata record and the author, title, publisher and date are reported at that strength. Tiered primary as the printed text of a participant's memorial, with reliability well below the tier: the author is arguing a case, namely that offensive war and the enslavement of captives should be resumed, and his estimates of enemy numbers and of profit are advocacy. He is cited here only for what he himself proposes, which is the part of the document that is not in dispute." }, { "id": "olivares-historiadores-de-chile-1863", "title": "Miguel de Olivares, history of Chile printed in Coleccion de historiadores de Chile y documentos relativos a la historia nacional (Santiago, Imprenta del Ferrocarril, 1863)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=srDUAAAAMAAJ", "publisher": "Santiago de Chile, Imprenta del Ferrocarril, 1863; series volume of the Coleccion de historiadores de Chile. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id srDUAAAAMAAJ)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-13. Pages opened: RA1-PA334, running head \"MIGUEL DE OLIVARES\", carrying the account of personal service and the opening of chapter XXIII \"Turbase el sistema de la guerra defensiva por falsos pretestos\"; RA1-PA359, chapter VIII \"Cedula nueva sobre la guerra ofensiva\", which dates the despatch to April 1625 and closes the defensive war at thirteen years. Tiered secondary, not primary: this is an eighteenth-century Jesuit narrative history of events its author did not witness, printed in a nineteenth-century series, and the volume is a composite whose RA1 and RA2 page sequences carry different works - only the RA1 sequence, the one with the Olivares running head, is cited here. Its value for this corpus is that it is hostile to its own order's man: it calls the defensive war a system that produced no profit at a cost of seven millions, which is why the claims resting on it are held at or below 0.8." }, { "id": "munoz-camargo-historia-de-tlaxcala-1892", "title": "Historia de Tlaxcala por Diego Munoz Camargo - the sixteenth-century author's own text as printed in the Mexico 1892 edition", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=zTUCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA267", "publisher": "Publicada y anotada por Alfredo Chavero; Mexico, Oficina Tipografica de la Secretaria de Fomento, Calle de San Andres numero 15, 1892. Full-view digitisation of the Harvard College Library copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Registered for the sixteenth-century author's own text only; the introduction and the footnotes of the same volume are a separate id, chavero-ramirez-notas-tlaxcala-1892, and the two never borrow each other's tier. Reliability is held at 0.75 for a primary because the transmission is long and the edition itself says so - the work reached print from manuscript copies, one of which the same edition collates as the \"manuscrito de Panes\", and the text lacks its own opening. Pages opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-13 - PP7, the title page, which carries the imprint and the statement that the edition is made by agreement of President General Porfirio Diaz as a homage to Christopher Columbus at the Chicago Exposition; PA70 and PA139, the author's account of the settlement of the land and of pre-conquest tribute, ending in the statement that the poorest tributed lice; and PA267, where he names the first bishops of New Spain, calls Las Casas \"gran defensor de las causas de los indios de todas las Indias\", states that the prelates then lived not on tithes but on a small royal allowance, and writes \"todo lo cual vi por vista de ojos\"." }, { "id": "chavero-ramirez-notas-tlaxcala-1892", "title": "Introduccion and annotations to the Historia de Tlaxcala - Alfredo Chavero, with notes by Jose Fernando Ramirez signed R", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=zTUCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3", "publisher": "In Diego Munoz Camargo, Historia de Tlaxcala; Mexico, Oficina Tipografica de la Secretaria de Fomento, 1892. Full-view digitisation of the Harvard College Library copy, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "The nineteenth-century editorial apparatus of the 1892 printing, read on 2026-08-13 at PA3 and PA4 (the signed introduction, with the notice of the author taken from Beristain, the record of the earlier partial printings, the division of the text into two books, and the statement that Orozco y Berra allowed Chavero to copy notes by Jose Fernando Ramirez, which are marked with the initial R), and at PA42, PA70, PA139 and PA140, footnotes in which the annotator contradicts the author - on the descent of the lords of Tlaxcala, on the extent of Teochichimeca settlement, and on the tribute of lice, which he traces to a memorial of Alonso de Ojeda through Herrera and sets against the silence of the oidor Zorita. Secondary because it is a nineteenth-century editor and annotator arguing about a sixteenth-century text, not the text itself." }, { "id": "tezozomoc-cronica-mexicana-1878", "title": "Cronica mexicana escrita por D. Hernando Alvarado Tezozomoc - the author's text as printed in the Mexico 1878 edition", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=aciARt20b0QC&pg=PA234", "publisher": "Biblioteca Mexicana; Mexico, Imprenta y litografia de I. Paz, 1878. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Registered for the chronicle's own text; the volume's editorial front matter is a separate id, cronica-mexicana-1878-aparato-editorial. Read on 2026-08-13 at PA234, where the Mexica elders address the newly seated Huitzilihuitl on their servitude to the Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco, the senate holds a cabildo, and an embassy of old men carries white fish and frogs to Tezozomoctli of Azcapotzalco to ask for his daughter. The half-title BIBLIOTECA MEXICANA was read at PP5 and the sheets are signed \"CRONICA\" at the foot of PA9; the title page itself is one of the few pids in this volume that the page-image path would not return, so the imprint line is carried from the volume's catalogue record rather than from the leaf, and the claim that rests on it is written to say so." }, { "id": "cronica-mexicana-1878-aparato-editorial", "title": "Editorial front matter of the Cronica mexicana of 1878 - the Advertencia of Jose Fernando Ramirez on the Codice Ramirez, the editor's note on it, and the introduction to the chronicle", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=aciARt20b0QC&pg=PA155", "publisher": "Biblioteca Mexicana; Mexico, Imprenta y litografia de I. Paz, 1878. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-13 at PA9, PA10 and PA11 - the section headed CODICE RAMIREZ. ADVERTENCIA, the first-person account by Jose Fernando Ramirez of finding the manuscript in the convento grande de San Francisco of Mexico City on the night of 16 September 1856, his physical description of it, his argument that its author was an indigenous layman, and his demonstration that it is the core of Diego Duran's history and behind Acosta; the editor's own footnote on PA9 records that the manuscript sees the light for the first time in this edition, describes the copy used, and states that the name Codice Ramirez was given by Chavero and Orozco y Berra. Read also at PA155, PA156 and PA157 - the introduction to the chronicle, which quotes the 1792 certification of Fr. Francisco Garcia Figueroa, the 1792 collector's summary of the work, Garcia Icazbalceta's Advertencia on its transmission and chapter count, and the notices of Bustamante and of Ternaux Compans, two of which the editor rejects in the same paragraphs. Secondary because these are nineteenth-century editors reasoning about sixteenth and seventeenth-century manuscripts." }, { "id": "codice-ramirez-relacion-1878", "title": "Relacion del origen de los indios que habitan esta Nueva España - the anonymous sixteenth-century text known as the Codice Ramirez, as first printed", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=aciARt20b0QC&pg=PA85", "publisher": "Printed with the Cronica mexicana in the Biblioteca Mexicana; Mexico, Imprenta y litografia de I. Paz, 1878. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Registered for the anonymous text itself. Read on 2026-08-13 at PA85, the entry into Cholula - the proclamation in Cortes's name summoning the principales to the patio of the great temple, the three gates held, the horsemen lancing those inside and making \"gran matanza de aquellos pobres\", the flight of the town, and the impostor sent by Motecuczoma being detected by the Tlaxcalans. Reliability is 0.7 rather than higher because the printing is at two removes from the lost original - it is set from the copy Ramirez had made of a sixteenth-century manuscript that is itself, on the same edition's argument, a translation of a Nahuatl text into the left-hand column of a two-column page - and because the text is anonymous and undated." }, { "id": "gonzalez-2014-de-castro-chemoreceptors", "title": "Fernando de Castro and the discovery of the arterial chemoreceptors", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4026738/", "publisher": "Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 8:25 (2014), Frontiers Media. Open access (CC BY), read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "Constancio Gonzalez and ten co-authors, DOI 10.3389/fnana.2014.00025, PMCID PMC4026738. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-13. A re-reading of de Castro's 1926 and 1928 papers by working carotid-body physiologists, quoting them at length in translation and reconstructing the experiments. It is used here for the substance of the two papers, for the 1928 conclusions in quotation, and for the fragment of Liljestrand's 1938 Nobel award ceremony speech that the authors reproduce in a footnote - the nobelprize.org page itself was unreachable from this container on the access date, so that quotation is cited at second hand and the claim resting on it is confidence-capped accordingly. The paper is candid about the errors of the 1926 article, which is why it can carry the counterpoints as well as the achievement." }, { "id": "de-castro-2016-cajal-school-peripheral", "title": "The Cajal School in the Peripheral Nervous System: The Transcendent Contributions of Fernando de Castro on the Microscopic Structure of Sensory and Autonomic Motor Ganglia", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4837679/", "publisher": "Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 10:43 (2016), Frontiers Media. Open access (CC BY), read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-13", "notes": "DOI 10.3389/fnana.2016.00043, PMCID PMC4837679, PMID 27147984. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-13. Reliability is set well below the tier for a declared reason: the author signs as Fernando de Castro, of the Instituto Cajal-CSIC, and the figures are drawn from the \"Archive Fernando de Castro\", so the paper is written from inside the subject's own scientific family and its emphasis is frankly commemorative. Its factual matter - the training role at the Cajal Institute between 1924 and 1932, the Civil War years spent protecting the Institute, the 1947 stay with Gasser and Lorente de No - is used for narrative claims held at or below 0.8, and the judgement that the war cost him the race with Heymans is reported as the author's, not adopted." }, { "id": "zamora-biblioteca-ultramarina-1845-tomo-di", "title": "Biblioteca de legislación ultramarina en forma de diccionario alfabético, the volume covering D-I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=m-LJ2bewEjwC&pg=PA237", "publisher": "José María Zamora y Coronado; Madrid: Imprenta de Alegría y Charlain, 1845", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "A compiler's alphabetical digest of the legislation of the Spanish overseas possessions, read as page scans on 2026-08-14. Full view, 660 pages; the imprint, year and extent are taken from the volume's Google Books feed entry because the title page was not reached in the front matter (PP5 and PP7 are blank leaves and a later attempt was refused by the throttle), while the running heads and the index at p. 633 confirm the volume and its contents. Read for three articles: FERROCARRILES at pp. 237-243, which quotes the real orden of 12 October 1834, the terms of the London loans, the directing commission's printed report of 15 April 1839 with its cost and earthwork figures, the employees' regulation of 1839 and the conditions of the auction of 11 January 1842; FOMENTO (JUNTAS DE) at pp. 298-299, whose sideways-printed table of the Real Junta de Fomento's income and outgoings from January 1835 to 30 June 1839 carries the note on the 3,744 jornales de negros of the corporation left out of the Güines road's cost and the column of 55,706 pesos 4 reales for the capture of runaways and squads against maroon settlements; and GREMIOS at pp. 394-396, which prints the viceregal providencia of 3 August 1798 in favour of a widow against the embroiderers' guild, the real cédula of 16 February 1800, and numbers 316-345 of the memoria of the viceroy count of Revillagigedo. Registered secondary, not primary: it quotes royal orders, reports and accounts at length but is not those documents, and its author was an official of the administration whose measures he is arranging. It also contradicts itself on one date reported here — the approval of the 1546 embroiderers' ordinances by viceroy Antonio de Mendoza is printed as 17 June 1747 — which is carried in a claim rather than corrected." }, { "id": "hunt-merchants-magazine-1860-cuba-railroads", "title": "\"Railroads in Cuba\", in the Railroad, Canal, and Steamboat Statistics department of The Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review, p. 112", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=1f8cAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA112", "publisher": "New York, 1860", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "An American commercial monthly reprinting a Havana paper, the Cuba Messenger, on the state of the island's railways; read as a page scan on 2026-08-14. Full view, 778 pages. The year comes from the volume's Google Books feed entry and the department from the running head at p. 112; the title page was not opened, so the volume number is not asserted here. Used as an independent foreign witness that the Havana-Güines line was \"the first ever constructed\" and was commenced in November 1835, that Cárdenas-Macagua followed in 1838 and Júcaro in 1839, and for the 1860 totals of 27 lines, about 818 English miles, $17,027,414.66 invested and $3,386,840 of receipts in 1858. Reliability 0.7 rather than higher: it is a magazine reprinting a newspaper's account of its own island's progress, and the same sentence that gives 818 English miles prints an inconsistent figure of 1,315,522 kilometres." }, { "id": "villalba-epidemiologia-espanola-madrid-1803", "title": "Epidemiología española, ó historia cronológica de las pestes, contagios, epidemias y epizootias que han acaecido en España desde la venida de los cartagineses hasta el año 1801, con noticia de algunas otras enfermedades de esta especie que han sufrido los españoles en otros reynos, y de los autores nacionales que han escrito sobre esta materia, así en la península como fuera de ella. Tomos I y II", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=fBiE6Pd0RdQC&pg=PR1", "publisher": "Joaquín de Villalba; Madrid, en la Imprenta de D. Fermín Villalpando, 1803. Read in the photographic facsimile published by the Universidad de Málaga, full-view digitisation, Google Books volume id fBiE6Pd0RdQC", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The two volumes of the 1803 Madrid printing, read as page scans of a photographic facsimile - the modern edition's own cover copy states that the work \"se reproduce en facsímil\", and the sheets carry the original signatures, catchwords and pagination, so the pages read here are the 1803 sheets and are registered primary for their own text. Tomo I runs to page 139 and ends \"FIN DEL TOMO PRIMERO\"; tomo II carries its own title page dated 1803 and is paginated separately, which is why its page ids in the scan take the RA1-PA prefix. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-14: PR1, the title page of tomo I with the full title, Villalba's offices and the Villalpando imprint; PR5, the dedication, which states the book's purpose and credits Cardinal Gastaldi with the first chronological list of the plagues of the world; PR7, the opening of the introduction, with the claim that plague is adventitious to Spanish soil and the mockery of Helmont's wine-skin explanation; PA70, the entry printed under the year 1492, carrying the transmission of smallpox to America by an enslaved African in the company of Pánfilo de Narváez and the figure of six hundred thousand Indian dead; PA133, the bibliographical section in which Villalba himself records Tiberio Quinecio Angelicio's \"Epidemiologia, sive tractatus de peste ad regni sardiniae pro regem\"; tomo II pages 112, the observation of Juan José de Castelbondo at Cartagena de Indias that the fever spared those who had already been in the Indies, and 196, the conclusion that the Cádiz and Seville fever of 1800 was exotic and that the contagious miasma was probably transplanted from America. The book is a compilation from chroniclers, town records and earlier physicians rather than a record of the author's own observation, and its patriotic framing is explicit on its first page of introduction; both are stated in the object's claims rather than left implicit." }, { "id": "villalba-facsimil-malaga-paratexto", "title": "Publisher's paratext to the Universidad de Málaga facsimile of Villalba's Epidemiología española (cover copy and facsimile-edition title page)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=fBiE6Pd0RdQC&pg=PP8", "publisher": "Universidad de Málaga; introductory study by Antonio Carreras Panchón, professor of the history of medicine at the University of Málaga. Full-view digitisation, Google Books volume id fBiE6Pd0RdQC", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The modern edition's own description of what it reprints, read as page scans on 2026-08-14 at PP7 and PP8 (front and back cover copy) and PP13 (the facsimile-edition title page, which reads \"FACSIMIL / A FACSIMILE EDITION / CON UN ESTUDIO PRELIMINAR / WITH AN INTRODUCTION / DE / BY / ANTONIO CARRERAS PANCHON\"). Used for four things only: that the work appeared in Madrid in 1802 and was reissued the following year; that this edition reproduces it in facsimile; that Villalba was a surgeon and librarian of the Colegio de Cirugía de San Carlos who intended the book as part of a larger history of medical knowledge in Spain that he never completed; and that the suspicion put into circulation by Luis Comenge - that Antonio Hernández Morejón and Anastasio Chinchilla drew on Villalba's unpublished papers - is a commonplace among historians of Spanish medicine which the edition's introductory study sets out to discard. Tiered secondary and given low reliability because this is publisher's copy summarising a study that the scanned volume does not itself make searchable; the claims bound to it are hedged accordingly and the introductory study's argument is reported as a claim about what the edition says, not as a settled finding." }, { "id": "orozco-y-berra-geografia-de-las-lenguas-mexico-1864", "title": "Geografía de las lenguas y carta etnográfica de México, precedidas de un ensayo de clasificacion de las mismas lenguas y de apuntes para las inmigraciones de las tribus", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=cc5EAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3", "publisher": "Manuel Orozco y Berra; México, Imprenta de J. M. Andrade y F. Escalante, calle de Tiburcio núm. 19, 1864. Full-view digitisation, Google Books volume id cc5EAAAAcAAJ", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The first edition, read as page scans on 2026-08-14. Pages opened: PR1, the half-title; PR3, the title page with the Andrade y Escalante imprint and the 1864 date; PR9, the passage of the introduction listing the chronicles and mission histories worked through - Pérez de Ribas, Alegre - and then Hervás's Catálogo de las lenguas, Balbi's Atlas ethnographique du globe and Prichard's six ethnographical maps, with the conclusion that European writers handle China and central Africa more accurately than they handle Mexico, followed by the author's account of how the book grew past the point where he could bear it; PR11, the declaration of method - that he is wholly ignorant of the languages of the country, understands nothing of their grammatical systems or dictionaries, has neither analysed nor compared them, and classified them \"siguiendo única y exclusivamente la autoridad\", adopting as demonstrated truths the opinions of the authors of the grammars and the statements of the missionaries - together with the ranking of his own three parts by credibility and the claim that his general catalogue far exceeds what Hervás and Balbi together supply; PR13, the long quotation from Balbi on why \"etnografía\" was adopted in place of \"lingüística\" and \"glossografía\", Orozco's admission that he does not know the proper word and adopts it \"sin mas réplica\", and the dedication of the map to José Fernando Ramírez with its origin in the plan inserted in the Memoria of 1857; PA37, the entry on the pima or névome, citing Buckingham Smith's New York 1862 edition of the eighteenth-century manuscript Arte de la lengua Névome, Kino and Sedelmayr, and the Documentos para la Historia de México, and recording that the languages named at the head of the section have all disappeared into cahita, mexicano or Spanish; PA52, the close of the enumeration of living and dead languages, with the Pericú extinct since about the middle of the previous century, the statement that the Spanish conquest introduced Castilian and that it is now dominant, the list of states in which the indigenous languages have perished entirely, and the sentence describing what happened to those drawn into the missions and to those who refused. Registered primary for the 1864 text itself; the volume's own historical judgements are nineteenth-century opinion and are reported as such." }, { "id": "romero-noticias-obispado-de-michoacan-1862", "title": "Noticias para formar la historia y la estadistica del obispado de Michoacan, presentadas a la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica en 1860", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=EgCIzC-dND8C&pg=PA47", "publisher": "Jose Guadalupe Romero, canonigo doctoral de la Santa Iglesia Catedral de Michoacan; Mexico, Imprenta de Vicente Garcia Torres, Calle de S. Juan de Letran num. 3, 1862. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "A diocesan statistical and historical survey, read as page scans on 2026-08-14. Its own title page (PP9) states that the Noticias were presented to the Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica in 1860 and printed in 1862, and names the author as canonigo doctoral of the cathedral he is describing — an interested party for the institutions of his own diocese, which is why reliability sits below the tier. It is also not independent of moreno-1766-fragmentos-colegio-de-san-nicolas on the Colegio de San Nicolas: on PA47 Romero quotes \"el autor de la vida del Sr. Quiroga\" by that name, so claims where the two agree are corroborated by one witness, not two. Pages opened and read 2026-08-14: PP9 (title page and imprint); PA47 (the four colleges of Valladolid, San Nicolas founded at Patzcuaro in 1540 with the character of a seminary, the Latin inscription \"Vel Tridentinorum Patrum Vota praevenit\" under Quiroga's portrait in the aula mayor, the claim that the college anticipated Trent sess. 23 cap. 18); PA48 (the patronage in the Cabildo, the transfer to Valladolid, the union with Fr. Juan de San Miguel's college in 1580, the closure in 1810 and the cession of the building and capitals to the state government in 1847, Antonio Vitzimengari taught by Alonso de la Veracruz, and the Colegio Seminario whose chairs opened on 23 January 1770 — a separate institution from San Nicolas); PA91 (Ziracuaretiro, where Quiroga planted the first five plantain shoots he brought from Santo Domingo); PA92 (Uruapan: Fr. Juan de San Miguel, the flight of the Tarascans from Nuño de Guzman after the killing of the Calzonzin, the learning of Tarascan in 1536, the sierra pueblos with their churches and hospitals, the foundation of Uruapan in 1540, the schools of first letters and of music, the defence of the indigenous against the conquistadores, and the four kinds of platanos acclimatised there); PA93 (the nine barrio chapels still standing, the settler figure \"algunos los hacen subir hasta 20,000\", the etymology of Uruapan from Urani, the statue raised by the Indians on the convent facade, Acambaro and San Miguel el Grande, and his death among the Indians of Uruapan)." }, { "id": "moreno-1766-fragmentos-colegio-de-san-nicolas", "title": "Fragmentos de la vida, y virtudes del V. Illmo. y Rmo. Sr. Dr. D. Vasco de Quiroga — the chapters on the Colegio de San Nicolas Obispo", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=SWgBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA57", "publisher": "Juan Joseph Moreno, rector of the Colegio Primitivo de San Nicolas; Impressos en Mexico en la Imprenta del Real, y mas Antiguo Colegio de S. Ildefonso, año de 1766. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The same 1766 imprint already registered as moreno-1766-vida-quiroga, but a different full-view digitisation with a different page-id map, registered under its own id so that the pages recorded here are the pages actually opened rather than pids borrowed from another scan. Read as page scans on 2026-08-14. Interested source, and the interest is precise: the title page (PP7) names Moreno as \"ahora Rector del mismo Colegio Primitivo de San Nicolas\" and states \"sacalos a luz el mencionado Colegio\", so the chapters on the college are the college's own account of itself, which is why reliability sits below the tier and the institutional-praise claims carry low confidence. Against that, it argues from documents it names and sometimes against its own convenience — it prints a royal patent verbatim, cites an informacion preserved in the college archive, and concedes in a footnote that Alonso de la Rea's history of the Franciscan province is silent on the foundation it asserts. Pages opened and read 2026-08-14: PP7 (title page and imprint); RA1-PA54 (Quiroga's testament on what would be lost if the college perished, the many raised there by 1565, the reference to an informacion preserved in original in the college archive, and the footnote on a collegian who served the first Jesuits as interpreter for the confessions of the Indians); RA1-PA55 (the informacion of 1576 and its ten witnesses, two of them Jesuits, deposing that more than 200 priests had come out of the college instructed in the languages of the kingdom; Quiroga's restriction of the curriculum to Grammar, Moral Theology and the Penitential Canons he compiled, which Moreno reports had not survived to 1766; the later chairs of Philosophy, Scholastic Theology and Moral; and the footnote on Antonio Vitzimengari y Mendoza); RA1-PA56 (the patronage in the Cabildo, the move to Valladolid, Fr. Juan de San Miguel's college at Guayangareo, and the footnotes on the meaning of Guayangareo and on Alonso de la Rea's silence); RA1-PA57 (the union of the two colleges on 10 October 1580, four months after the translation of the church; the patronage of the hospitals left to the Rector, the collegians electing their own Rector, and the wish that the rectors be alumni); RA1-PA58 (the royal patent of Carlos V and Doña Juana, Barcelona, 1 May 1543, transcribed in full)." }, { "id": "oviedo-historia-1851-libro-viii-platanos", "title": "Historia general y natural de las Indias, libro VIII capitulo I, on the fruit the Christians called platanos — the text of Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=yw4-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA291", "publisher": "Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes; publicala la Real Academia de la Historia, cotejada con el codice original, por D. Jose Amador de los Rios. Primera parte. Madrid, Imprenta de la Real Academia de la Historia, 1851. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Oviedo's own text on the plantain, read as page scans on 2026-08-14. The same volume is registered as oviedo-historia-1851-tomo1, whose notes restrict it to the pineapple chapter at PA280-PA282; this entry covers a different chapter of the same volume and is registered separately so that neither entry's page list is silently widened. Reliability below the tier for the reason given there: the author is a royal official writing for the crown that employed him and a declared opponent of Las Casas. On this subject the bias runs in a useful direction — the passage concedes that the plant is not American, that the Spanish name for it is wrong, and that the city of Santo Domingo had to uproot many of the plants. Pages opened and read 2026-08-14: PA291 (the bunch of twenty to fifty or more fruits, the preparations raw, sun-cured, roasted and boiled, the twelve to fifteen days the green fruit keeps at sea, the year to fruit and the four to six suckers, the ant plague that caused many to be uprooted in Santo Domingo, the fruit borne all year, \"no es por su origen natural destas partes\", and \"quanto a la verdad no se pueden llamar platanos (ni lo son)\"); PA292 (the plant brought from Gran Canaria in 1516 by fray Thomas de Berlanga of the Order of Preachers to Santo Domingo and thence to the other islands and Tierra Firme, the uncountable number on the island's estates and the rent they yield at no cost, Oviedo seeing the plants at the monastery of Sanct Francisco in Gran Canaria in 1520, the report of them at Almeria, the identification with the musas of Alexandria on the testimony of Genoese, Italian and Greek merchants and of Peter Martyr's Decades, and the malapolanda of Calicut in Varthema's Itinerario); PA293 (the close of the chapter: the argument from Pliny's plane tree that \"estos que aca se llaman platanos no lo son\", the statement that these plants \"vinieron aca por la diligencia y medio de aquel reverendo padre fray Thomas de Berlanga\", whom the Emperor afterwards made bishop of Castilla del Oro in Tierra Firme, the note that the sugar canes were likewise brought from the Canary Islands, and the closing sentence turning from these to \"los arboles que son aca naturales destas partes\")." }, { "id": "ordenanzas-san-telmo-sevilla-1786", "title": "Ordenanzas para el Real Colegio de San Telmo de Sevilla", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=fMPdS_ICxygC&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Madrid, en la Imprenta de la Viuda de Ibarra, año MDCCLXXXVI. Complutense University of Madrid copy (shelfmark inked R.169142 on the title page), digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The 1786 Madrid sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-14. This volume has no OCR layer - SearchWithinVolume returns zero results for words that are plainly on the page - so it was navigated by reading images from the click3 page map. A normative text: it states what the rule was, not how it was kept, and the claims bound to it are worded accordingly. Pages opened and read - PP7, the title page, \"ORDENANZAS PARA EL REAL COLEGIO DE SAN TELMO DE SEVILLA … MADRID EN LA IMPRENTA DE LA VIUDA DE IBARRA AÑO MDCCLXXXVI\", with an engraved vignette signed \"M. Maella inv.\" and \"H. Fabregat inc.\" showing a female figure holding a chart between two ships, with octant, anchor and cable, before the Pillars lettered PLVS VLTRA and the royal arms; printed pages 1-5, the royal preamble \"EL REY\" and articles I-VII; printed pages 31-32, articles LXII-LXV on the professors; printed page 124, articles CCLXIII-CCLXV and the closing formula; printed page 125, the dating \"Dada en S. Lorenzo el Real á seis de Noviembre de mil setecientos ochenta y seis.= YO EL REY.= Josef de Galvez\", the address to the Consejo y Cámara de las Indias and to the President and Oidores of the Real Audiencia de Contratación, and the note \"Es copia de la original\". PP1 is the marbled binding, not a title page; PT1 is a blank verso showing bleed-through." }, { "id": "ordenanzas-san-telmo-malaga-1787", "title": "Ordenanzas para el Real Colegio de San Telmo de Málaga", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=xwqLGRkan0MC&pg=PP1", "publisher": "Madrid, en la Imprenta de la Viuda de Ibarra, año MDCCLXXXVII. British Library copy (BL stamp on printed page 126), digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The 1787 Madrid sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-14. Same press, same year family and the same engraved vignette as the Seville ordinances of 1786, from the same plate signed \"M. Maella inv.\" and \"H. Fabregat inc.\" - which is itself the evidence that the two codes were issued as one programme. Like its Seville counterpart it is normative text. Pages opened and read - PP1, the title page, \"ORDENANZAS PARA EL REAL COLEGIO DE SAN TELMO DE MÁLAGA … MADRID EN LA IMPRENTA DE LA VIUDA DE IBARRA AÑO MDCCLXXXVII\", carrying a pencilled English cataloguer's note \"Spain. Charles III\"; PP3, the \"TABLA DE LOS TITULOS CON EL NUMERO DEL ARTICULO EN QUE CADA UNO EMPIEZA\", listing among others Catedráticos de Matemáticas y facultades náuticas at article 48, Catedrático de Comercio at 63, Maestros de las lenguas Francesa, Inglesa, Italiana y Alemana at 79, Guardia at 114 and Médico y Cirujano at 115; printed pages 1-5, the royal preamble \"EL REY\" and articles 1-6; printed page 126, the dating \"Dada en el Pardo á diez y nueve de Marzo de mil setecientos ochenta y siete.= YO EL REY.= Josef de Galvez\" and \"Es copia de la original\"." }, { "id": "ordenanza-aqueducto-san-telmo-malaga-1804", "title": "Ordenanza del Aqüeducto del Real Colegio de San Telmo de Málaga, aprovada y mandada observar por el Rey N. Señor", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=VA2u2Wl7EA4C&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Málaga, por D. Luis de Carreras, Impresor de dicho Real Colegio, año MDCCCIV. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The 1804 Málaga sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-14. Two documents in one pamphlet, and they are not the same kind of evidence. The opening \"Noticia del aqüeducto de Málaga\" is a retrospective narrative printed by the institution that had just been given the works, so its account of motives and of its own predecessors' merits is interested; the reliability set here sits below the other two San Telmo entries for that reason, and the claims drawn from the Noticia are pitched lower than those drawn from the articles. The articles themselves are the enacted rule. Pages opened and read - PP7, the title page, \"ORDENANZA DEL AQÜEDUCTO DEL REAL COLEGIO DE SAN TELMO DE MÁLAGA … AÑO MDCCCIV. Por D. Luis de Carreras, Impresor de dicho Real Colegio &c.\"; PA1, the frontispiece engraving signed \"Mesa\" and \"Diez\", captioned \"REAL COLEGIO DE S. TELMO DE MALAGA\", showing the saint holding a ship above the Pillars and the royal arms, with a child at a globe and charts between two vessels; printed pages 3-12, the Noticia; printed pages 16-17, articles II and III." }, { "id": "flores-arte-cakchiquel-1753-print", "title": "Arte de la lengua metropolitana del reyno Cakchiquel, o Guatemalico, con un parallelo de las lenguas metropolitanas de los reynos Kiche, Cakchiquel, y Çutuhil, que hoy integran el reyno de Guatemala (Guatemala: Sebastian de Arebalo, 1753)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=-uxMwIhP5vYC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Fray Ildefonso Joseph Flores, O.F.M., of the province of the Dulcissimo Nombre de Jesus de Guatemala; En Guatemala con licencia de los Sup. por Sebastian de Arebalo, ano de 1753. Zentralbibliothek Zurich copy (bookplate on PP2 recording the 1923 gift of Prof. Stoll), full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The 1753 Guatemala sheets, 448 images in the scan, read as page scans on 2026-08-14 through the anchored click3 signed page-image route at 1800px width. The volume does carry an OCR layer, so SearchWithinVolume answers and was used to locate the leaves. Pages opened and read - PP5, the title page, giving the title, the parallel of Kiche, Cakchiquel and Çutuhil, the author's offices (Ex-Lector de Phylosophia, Predicador, y Cura Doctrinero por el Rl. Patronato del Pueblo de Santa Maria de Iesus) and the imprint \"En Guatemala con licencia de los Sup. por Sebastian de Arebalo: Ano de 1753\"; PP30 and PP31, the closing leaves of an approbation whose signature page was not opened, carrying the \"docientos, y nueve anos\" complaint that no Arte of these languages had ever been printed, the roll-call of Betanzos, Escalona and Maldonado, and the pun on the author's surname; PP33, the head of the Aprobacion of Fr. Gregorio Azanon, synodal examiner of the archbishopric and prior of Santo Domingo of Guatemala, addressed to the Provisor and transcribing the book's full title; PP36, the close of that approbation, dated \"En este Convento de N. P. Santo Domingo de Guatemala, en 27. de Marzo de este ano de 1753\" and signed \"Fray Gregorio de Azanon. Mro. y Prior\"; PP38, a further approbation by a censor who states he was Flores's own teacher and asks to be excused for partiality; PP41 and PP42, the prologue's three-generation roll of Franciscans who wrote on these languages in manuscript; printed page 207 (pid PA207), section XIII on the anomalous verb Ah, which states the contrast between Cakchiquel on one side and Kiche and Çutuhil on the other. Reliability sits a little below the tier: the approbations are by interested parties, one of them the author's own master and saying so, and the front matter is a Franciscan province publishing its own member. The scan's title leaf has a torn upper outer corner, so the first letters of the first four lines of the title are missing from the sheet and are supplied from Azanon's transcription on PP33 and from the volume feed entry." }, { "id": "gutierrez-bibliografia-imprenta-buenos-aires-1866", "title": "Bibliografia de la primera imprenta de Buenos Aires desde su fundacion hasta el ano de 1810 inclusive, o catalogo de las producciones de la Imprenta de Ninos espositos, con observaciones y noticias curiosas, precedida de una biografia del virey Don Juan Jose de Vertiz y de una disertacion sobre el orijen del arte de imprimir en America (Buenos Aires, 1866)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=FbEtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA27", "publisher": "Juan Maria Gutierrez; Buenos Aires, Imprenta de Mayo, 1866. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "An 1866 printing read as page scans on 2026-08-14 through the anchored click3 signed page-image route at 1800px width. The volume runs in several separately numbered sequences and Google's pids reflect that - there are two distinct printed page 27s, at pids PA27 and RA2-PA27, and the catalogue proper is the RA3 sequence. Pages opened and read - PA27, on the press being formed from the one the Jesuits had owned at the Colegio de Monserrat of Cordoba, its types and equipment badly deteriorated and costly to repair, with Vertiz's own words from his Memoria quoted (\"Este arbitrio, a mas de rendir algunos ingresos a la casa de espositos, tambien proporciona al publico los utiles efectos de la prensa\"), the royal cedula approving the foundation of the casa de espositos dated to 1783 against publications printed at Buenos Aires from 1781, and a footnote that printing was not introduced in Chile until after independence; RA2-PA27, on the Monserrat press passing into the Temporalidades estate at the expulsion of the Jesuits, and on the Spanish monarch's express will that the expelled fathers' goods be applied exclusively to public instruction and to charitable establishments, followed by the arrival of Chile's first press from New York in 1811; RA3-PA31, catalogue entries 28-30 of 1785, transcribing imprints of the form \"Buenos Ayres en la Real imprenta de Ninos Expositos y a su costa\"; RA3-PA132, catalogue entry 106, the Telegrafo mercantil of 1801 printed \"En la Real imprenta de Ninos Expositos de Buenos Aires\", four volumes from 1 April 1801 to 15 October 1802. Tiered secondary and reliability well below it: this is a nineteenth-century Argentine liberal writing the pre-history of his own country's press, the biographical and dissertation sections are frankly partisan about Spanish rule, and the eighteenth-century facts reach the reader through his summary of the viceroy's Memoria rather than from that document. Its catalogue entries, which transcribe title pages he had in front of him, are the stronger part and are what the claims lean on." }, { "id": "san-alberto-carta-pastoral-1784-print", "title": "Carta pastoral que ... Joseph Antonio de San Alberto ... dirige a sus amados hijos los Curas a la entrada de su gobierno en el Arzobispado (Buenos Aires: Real Imprenta de Ninos Expositos, 1784)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=DqdgAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "Jose Antonio de San Alberto, successively bishop of Cordoba del Tucuman and archbishop of La Plata; Real Imprenta de Ninos Expositos, Buenos Aires, 1784. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Registered here only as a surviving imprint of the press, not for its contents. The volume feed entry was fetched on 2026-08-14 and gives the author, the year 1784, 220 pages, and the publisher \"Real Imprenta de Ninos Expositos\"; the volume is full view and its search layer answers, though thinly - \"escuelas\" returns one hit and \"indios\" none, which is a sign of poor OCR on the long-s type rather than of absent subject matter. The title page was not opened and the imprint therefore rests on the feed entry and on the search layer, which is why reliability sits well under the tier. No claim in this corpus should rest on this entry for anything beyond the existence and dating of an imprint from this press." }, { "id": "torquemada-monarquia-indiana-1723-tomo-ii-cacao", "title": "Monarquia indiana, tomo II, libro catorce - the chapters on barter as money (cap. XXIII, printed page 579) and on the cacao tree (printed page 620)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=0O5cTpgOIpQC&pg=PA620", "publisher": "Fray Juan de Torquemada, O.F.M.; the 1723 Madrid printing by Nicolas Rodriguez Franco of the twenty-one ritual books and Indian monarchy, second tomo. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "A different volume from the tomo III printings already registered in this file; the pages read here are in the second tomo, whose running head reads \"de la Monarquia Indiana\" and whose foot signature at printed page 579 reads \"Tomo II\". Read as page scans on 2026-08-14 at 1800px width. Pages opened and read - printed page 579 (pid PA579), the head of chapter XXIII on commutation, with the sentence \"En esta Nueva-Espana tenian el Cacao por dinero, que es vn grano como Almendra ... y en el Piru cierta Ierva, que llaman Coca\"; printed page 620 (pid PA620), the opening of the chapter on useful trees, with the cacao tree's height, its propagation from its own fruit in almacigos and transplanting in ordered rows, the Cacahuanantli or \"mother of the cacao\" planted beside it for shade, the pod like a small melon with commonly thirty grains, the reckoning by cargas of twenty-four thousand almonds and by xiquipiles of eight thousand grains, the price series from four or five pesos at the conquest to more than sixty in the author's present, and the two causes he gives for it - that the land where cacao grows \"esta ia casi sin Gente\", and that the Spaniards had taken to drinking it hot as chocolate and it was being carried to Spain. Reliability sits below the tier: Torquemada is a Franciscan chronicler compiling earlier accounts, the 1723 sheets are a reprint of the 1615 work rather than the first edition, and the price figures are his own report without a source. The title page was not opened - the volume's front matter carries no usable OCR and searches for \"Madrid\" return nothing - so the imprint is taken from the volume feed entry." }, { "id": "lanaud-cacao-archaeogenomics-2024", "title": "A revisited history of cacao domestication in pre-Columbian times revealed by archaeogenomic approaches", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10920634/", "publisher": "Claire Lanaud and colleagues, Scientific Reports 14:2972, 7 March 2024, doi 10.1038/s41598-024-53010-6; open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read 2026-08-14 as full text on PMC; abstract and introduction read in full. Ceramic residues from a large sample of pre-Columbian cultures of South and Central America analysed by archaeogenomic and biochemical methods. Reports the widespread use of cacao in South America outside its native Amazonian area of origin extending back some 5,000 years; strong human-driven genetic mixing between geographically distant cacao populations as early as the middle Holocene; the species originating in the humid tropics of South America with diversity hotspots in the upper Amazon near the Colombia-Ecuador frontier; and the explicit correction that Mesoamerica and Central America, popularly taken for the homeland of cacao, received it through earlier human-mediated dispersal. Also cites documented traces of cacao use and domestication in the southern Ecuadorian Amazon dating back 5,300 years BP." }, { "id": "bachiller-apuntes-letras-cuba-1859", "title": "Apuntes para la historia de las letras y de la instruccion publica de la isla de Cuba, por Antonio Bachiller y Morales", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=fn4CAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA11", "publisher": "Habana, Imprenta de P. Massana, 1859. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (720 pages, two parts bound together)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-14: PA138, PA139 and PA144 on the university of San Geronimo de la Habana, and RA1-PA5, RA1-PA6, RA1-PA9, RA1-PA11, RA1-PA12 and RA1-PA13 on the presses of Havana and the Papel Periodico. Bachiller was a Havana jurist and bibliographer writing under the colonial regime he describes, and the book is a compilation rather than an archive: its value here is that it transcribes documents at length - the report of Dr Jose Agustin Caballero to the Sociedad Patriotica of 2 September 1794 on the establishment and accounts of the Papel Periodico, the announcement of 17 April 1800 on printing apprentices, the commission report of 4 June 1800 and the Consulado's letter of 12 July 1805. Reliability is held at 0.8 because the transcriptions are reported, not reproduced in facsimile, and because the book contradicts itself on one date used here: it puts the first proposal for a university \"por los anos de 1760\" two sentences before citing a supporting report of 1688 and a bull of 1721." }, { "id": "torre-habana-antigua-y-moderna-1857", "title": "Lo que fuimos y lo que somos, o La Habana antigua y moderna, por Jose Maria de la Torre", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=V_kdAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA122", "publisher": "Habana, Imprenta de Spencer y Compania, O'Reilly 110, 1857. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-14: PA121, PA122, PA124 and PA129, that is chapter XII, \"Imprentas, Periodicos, Librerias, Bibliotecas\", together with the sample issue of the Papel Periodico de la Havana of 17 August 1800 that the author reprints. Used for the licence of 1735, the prohibition of 1774 and its non-observance, the four presses standing at the end of the century, the periodical's format and price, the opening of the public library in July 1793, and the contents of an actual issue. Reliability is set at 0.75 for a reason the book states itself: its footnote to that chapter says it drew heavily on the still unpublished articles of Bachiller y Morales, so it is only partly independent of the other Havana source registered here. Where the two disagree - the subscription price, the spelling of the first librarian's name - both readings are carried in the claims rather than reconciled." }, { "id": "caramuel-mathesis-biceps-1670-meditatio", "title": "Ioannis Caramuelis Mathesis biceps, vetus et nova - 'Meditatio Prooemialis. De Arithmeticarum numero, & varietate' (tomus I, foliation XLV-LXI)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=5cmBsjnRQzwC&pg=PR45", "publisher": "Campaniae [Campagna, Kingdom of Naples], In Officina Episcopali, 1670; sold at Lyon by Laurent Anisson. Digitised full view on Google Books, volume id 5cmBsjnRQzwC", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Digitised original, read as page images on 2026-08-14 at zoom=3 and w=1800. Title page opened (pid PP7): \"IOANNIS CARAMVELIS MATHESIS BICEPS. VETVS, ET NOVA ... CAMPANIAE, In Officina Episcopali Anno M.DC.LXX. SVPERIORVM PERMISSV. Prostant Lugduni apud Laurentium Anisson.\" Six further pages were opened and read, all in the front-matter sequence, which carries its own roman foliation: pid PR1 (the \"Series Syntagmatum\", listing Syntagma I Arithmetica and the twelve articles of the Meditatio Prooemialis with their folios), PR45-PR46 (folios XLV-XLVI, Articulus I De Binaria Arithmetica, with the table of 0-32 written in two characters and the comparative table \"Revolutiones Arithmeticae. Binariae | Communis\"), PR50-PR51 (folios L-LI, Articulus III De Quaternaria Arithmetica and number VIII on the Paraguayans), and PR61 (folio LXI, Articulus XI De Sexagenaria Arithmetica). The running head of the recto pages read is \"De Arithmeticarum numero, & varietate\". Nothing is cited from folios not in this list; the contents of the intermediate articles are cited only as the Series Syntagmatum prints them. OCR of this volume is poor (long s read as f), so the pages were located through the printed article list and the volume index and then read as images, not through search snippets." }, { "id": "academie-royale-table-des-matieres-1699-1710", "title": "Table alphabetique des matieres contenues dans l'Histoire et les Memoires de l'Academie Royale des Sciences, 1699-1710 (entries ARITHMETIQUE and ARITHMETIQUE Binaire, pp. 57-58)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=l79eAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA57", "publisher": "Academie Royale des Sciences, Paris. The Google Books record for the scanned container gives the title 'Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences; avec les memoires de mathematique et de physique, 1699-1789' and the publisher Jean Boudot", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Digitised original, pages 57 and 58 read as page images on 2026-08-14. The pages carry the running heads \"DE L'ACADEMIE 1699-1710\" and \"TABLE DES MEMOIRES\" and the running foot \"Tab. des Mat. 1699-1710\", so the section read is the Academy's own alphabetical table of its published Histoire and Memoires for those years. Used only for what such a table can carry: the year, volume and page at which the Academy printed a given memoir, and the wording of its own entries. The 1703 memoir itself was not opened in this run, and no claim rests on its contents beyond the title the table prints." }, { "id": "speller-2010-turkey-domestication", "title": "Ancient mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals complexity of indigenous North American turkey domestication", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2840336/", "publisher": "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107(7):2807-2812 (2010), National Academy of Sciences. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Speller, Kemp, Wyatt, Monroe, Lipe, Arndt and Yang; doi 10.1073/pnas.0909724107. Read 2026-08-14. Source of the sample counts (149 turkey bones and 29 coprolites from 38 archaeological sites, 200 BC - AD 1800), of haplogroup H1 and its uniformity (116 of 143 sequenced archaeological samples sharing one haplotype), of the conclusion that there were at least two occurrences of turkey domestication in precontact North America, of the exclusion of the South Mexican domestic turkey as progenitor of the Southwestern birds, and of the statement that Mexican turkeys were carried to Europe in the early sixteenth century and returned to North America in the eighteenth." }, { "id": "algue-archipielago-filipino-1900-tomo-ii", "title": "El archipielago filipino: coleccion de datos geograficos, estadisticos, cronologicos y cientificos - tomo II (Climatologia, Focos seismicos, Magnetismo terrestre)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=OKcsAQAAMAAJ", "publisher": "Washington, Imprenta del Gobierno, 1900. Compiled by the Jesuit fathers of the Observatorio Meteorologico de Manila, credited in the Google Books record to Jose Algue, its director. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id OKcsAQAAMAAJ; a second scan of the same tomo is JYZPgzsVvDQC, which returns near-identical search hits)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "An original 1900 imprint, opened here directly as page scans through the Google Books signed-image chain, not a reprint or an edition. It is nonetheless an institutional self-account: the Manila Observatory writing the history of the Manila Observatory, published by the United States government press two years after the change of sovereignty, and at several points defending its own staff. Reliability is set at 0.75 for that reason and the interpretive claims resting on it are kept at or below 0.8. The catalogue record carries no tomo number; the volume identifies itself as tomo II in the signature line of page 273 (\"4619-TOMO II--18\"). Pages opened and read - PR3 and PR5, the index of Tratado X (Climatologia), listing chapter I on the observatory with its sections down to \"El servicio meteorologico del Observatorio de Manila vindicado y rehabilitado, 1899\"; PR13, the index entries for Tratado XI (Focos seismicos), prologue at page 269, chapter I \"De los focos seismicos en general\" at 271, and the regional chapters for northern Luzon; PR14, the index continuing through the Mindanao foci and into Tratado XIII on terrestrial magnetism; PA5, the foundation of 1865 and the first instruments lent by the Ateneo Municipal; PA6, the Secchi meteorograph of 1870, the monthly bulletin, and the first typhoon announcements of 7 July and 18 November 1879; PA7, the aftermath of the November 1879 storm, the forty-two ships lost south of Luzon where the telegraph did not reach, the Hongkong cable of 1880, the 1881 pamphlet Senales precursoras de temporal and the 1886 barometer; PA8, the real orden of 28 April 1884, the Luzon service of fourteen secondary stations, the Boletin Mensual from 1885 and the exchange with Tokyo from 1890; PA9, the Chicago congress of 1893 and the international cloud measurement of 1896-1897 with the two Gunther photo-theodolites and the Hildebrandsson letters of 19 June and 22 September 1899; PA10, Baguios o Ciclones Filipinos (1897), the barocyclonometer, and the 1898-1899 suspension and restoration of the typhoon telegrams; PA13, the plate \"Vista IV - Departamento seismico y torre de los aparatos meteorologicos\"; PA16, the appeal to Admiral Dewey and the request of the United States consul general at Hongkong; PA253, the opening of the chapter on turbonadas; PA269, the folded colour plate \"Focos seismicos del Archipielago\"; PA271, the definitions of seismic focus and epicentre; PA273, submarine foci, seismic waves and subterranean noises; PA274, the Riobamba earthquake of 1797, seismic periods, and the three seismic zones of the archipelago with their parallels." }, { "id": "zamora-y-coronado-biblioteca-ultramarina-tomo-iv", "title": "Jose Maria Zamora y Coronado, Biblioteca de legislacion ultramarina en forma de diccionario alfabetico - the entry LOTERIA (renta de) en la isla de Cuba", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=2EYX1DTC05AC", "publisher": "Madrid, Imprenta de Alegria y Charlain, 1845. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id 2EYX1DTC05AC)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "An original 1845 imprint opened directly as page scans. A compiler's dictionary of the law of the Indies, cited here for the text it prints rather than for its own opinions; it is primary for what the compilation contains and secondary for the 1836 ordinance itself, which is reproduced here rather than read in its own printing - a limit stated in the object as its own claim. One discrepancy is carried rather than resolved: the Google Books catalogue titles this volume \"J-O\", while the running foot of the pages read prints \"TOM. IV.\". Pages opened and read - PA191, the head of the entry LOTERIA (renta de) en la isla de Cuba, the real orden of 28 April 1810 and the reference to the reglamento of the Mexico lottery of 20 December 1769, the first draw of 11 September 1812, and the reales ordenes of 1813, 1814, 1815 and 1828 on uniformity, salaries and the glossing of accounts; PA192, the preamble and articles 1 to 3 of the Real ordenanza of 1 June 1836, with the salary schedule, the nineteen named foraneo collectorships, the funds of 70,000 and 140,000 pesos and the quarter deducted for the renta; PA193, articles 4 to 13, the four-peso ticket divided into quarters and eighths, the chest of three locks and three key-holders, the public draw with its glass-topped board and slate, the fourteen ordinary draws a year, the two-year lapse of unclaimed prizes and the penalties on collectors; PA200, articles 62 to 74 closing the ordinance and the section \"Valores de esta renta hasta 1844\" with the counts of draws, the total fund of 13,892,500 pesos, the 1837 product and the itemised statement of 31 December including the 3,600-peso assignment to the casa de Beneficencia." }, { "id": "fonseca-urrutia-real-hacienda-ii", "title": "Historia general de Real Hacienda, tomo II", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ePIjiJ5gNqMC&pg=PA437", "publisher": "Escrita por D. Fabian de Fonseca y D. Carlos de Urrutia por orden del virey conde de Revillagigedo; Mexico, Imprenta de Vicente G. Torres, 1849. Tomo II. Full-view digitisation of the Harvard College Library copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The tome that carries alcabalas, the lottery, playing cards and the whole of the tobacco monopoly. Read as page scans on 2026-08-14: PA1 (half-title); PT1 and PT5 (the index of matters in this tomo II, which fixes the section pages - Renta del tabaco 353, Cosechas y compras 368, Fábrica de puros y cigarros 408, Planta de empleados de 1788 420, Productos y gastos hasta 1790 437); PA353-PA356 (the establishment of the estanco, the real cédula of 13 August 1764 given at San Ildefonso and the junta convened under the viceroy marqués de Cruillas); PA368 (the prohibition of planting outside Córdoba, Orizava and Teuxitlan by the real instrucción of 30 July 1764); PA408-PA413 (the founding of the cigar factory in the capital, the bandos of 1766 and 1768, the extinction of the cigarrerías by 1775, the seven thousand persons of both sexes employed, and the tarea regulation); PA419-PA421 (the payroll of 1788 as certified by the contaduría general on 20 September 1788); PA435-PA438 (the closing payroll totals, the life pensions and jubilaciones, the count of 12,028 factory hands and 17,256 people in all, and the year-by-year table of products and costs to 1790). The work is an official administrative history compiled in 1791-1793 by two royal accountants from the treasury's own records at the order of the viceroy Revillagigedo, and printed half a century later; reliability is set below the tier because the compilers were describing the administration they served and because the figures are the renta's own returns with no audit beside them. Totals in the products table were checked to subtract correctly before use." }, { "id": "memoria-hacienda-mexico-1829", "title": "Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (México, 1829), with the general budget for the economic year 1 July 1829 to 30 June 1830 and its appendices", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=XnkpAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA12", "publisher": "México. Secretaría de Hacienda; México, Impresión del Supremo Gobierno, 1829. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The Mexican finance ministry's report to Congress and its printed budget appendices, read as page scans on 2026-08-14: PA9 and PA10 (the revenue discussion), PA12 (the \"Demostracion\" reconciling the general budget of 15,624,005 pesos 7 reales 8 granos against calculated products of 15,140,737, the deficit of 483,268 pesos 5 reales 10 granos, and the minister's statement that of the revenues assigned to the union all but the maritime customs, the customs of the capital, tobacco and the contingente are \"casi insignificantes\" and that \"la renta del tabaco ecsiste porque hay necesidad de sus productos y falta de medios de sostituirla con otra contribucion\"), PA13 (the argument that the federation must either be given the ramo de tabacos or a substitute contribution, and the objection to a uniform general tax), PA1 (appendix table Nº 1, the existencia at the end of June 1827, signed by Maniau for the Departamento de cuenta y razón, México 24 December 1828), PA3-IA18 and PA3-IA19 (appendix table Nº 12, TABACO, the calculated stocks at the end of June 1828 by factoría - Orizaba, Córdova, Veracruz, the almacenes generales de México, the fábrica de puros y cigarros of the city and the villa de Guadalupe), and RA1-PP3 and RA1-PP9 (budget notes signed at México 31 December 1828 and the Ministerio de Justicia estimate for the year 1829-30). The title page is not among the leaves the digitisation makes openable, so the imprint is taken from the catalogue record and the dating confirmed from the internal signatures; reliability is set accordingly, and because the document is a ministry reporting on its own administration to the legislature that funded it." }, { "id": "oviedo-historia-1851-tomo1-libros-v-vii", "title": "Historia general y natural de las Indias, islas y tierra-firme del mar Oceano, primera parte, libro V capitulos II-III, libro VI capitulos III-IV and libro VII capitulos X-XI - the text of Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=yw4-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA131", "publisher": "Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes, primer cronista del Nuevo Mundo; publicala la Real Academia de la Historia, cotejada con el codice original, enriquecida con las enmiendas y adiciones del autor, por D. Jose Amador de los Rios. Primera parte. Madrid, Imprenta de la Real Academia de la Historia, 1851. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The same volume already registered as oviedo-historia-1851-tomo1, but a different run of pages, registered separately so that each source id states exactly which sheets were opened. Pages read as page scans on 2026-08-14, in the signed-src chain described in the learnings files: PA131 and PA132, the end of libro V capitulo II, on the tabaco taken through cane tubes, on the hamaca as a cotton manta woven \"a escaques cruzados hecha red\" ten or twelve palmos long, on the hilos of cabuya or henequen ending in a trancahilo \"fecho como una empulguera de una cuerda de ballesta\", on the hicos tied to trees or to the posts of the buhio, on the brasa sin llama set underneath in cold weather, on the complaint that an unaccustomed sleeper lies arched in a \"quebrantado dormitorio\" and the remedy of lying \"de traves\", on the judgement that it is the best kind of bed for men of war because a boy carries it under his arm and a horseman on the caparison of the saddle, on the argument that in armies in Spain and Italy \"no adolescerian ni moririan tantos\", and on the havas or patacas of bihao in which men of war carry them; PA134, libro V capitulo III, read as context for the surrounding matter of the same book; PA170, the close of libro VI capitulo III on the two huracanes and the heading and opening of capitulo IV on the canoas and piraguas, with the hollowing by hafted stone axes and fire and the statement that the Christians living there cannot work the estates on the sea coasts and great rivers without them; PA171, the continuation, with the flat bottom and absence of a keel, the canoes of forty and fifty men, the Carib piraguas with cotton sails and the oars called nahes, the swamping that does not sink, and the comparison of eight oars against twelve; PA277 and PA278, libro VII capitulo X \"De la cabuya y del henequen\" with the retting under stones \"como ahogan en Castilla el lino\", the scutching \"a manera de espadar el canamo\", the fibre \"que paresce lino muy blanco\", the hicos of the hamacas, and the cutting of iron fetters and of ships' anchors with a thread of henequen and fine sand, together with the heading and opening of capitulo XI on the maguey omitted from \"la impression primera\". Reliability is set below the tier for the reason given in the entry for the other page run: Oviedo is an interested witness, a royal official and settler writing for the crown that employed him and a declared opponent of Las Casas. The volume carries a search layer, but it returned zero hits for \"huracan\" on a page that plainly prints the word twice, so the layer was used only to locate candidate pages and never as a text source." }, { "id": "covarrubias-tesoro-1611-hamaca-canoa", "title": "Tesoro de la lengua castellana o espanola (Madrid, 1611), the entries HAMACA (folio 461 recto) and CANOA (folio 188 verso)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=YsRKAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA461", "publisher": "En Madrid, por Luis Sanchez, impressor del Rey N.S., ano del Senor M.DC.XI (1611); full-view digitisation of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The same 1611 sheets already registered as covarrubias-tesoro-1611-print, but two further folios, registered separately so that each id names the leaves actually opened. Read as page scans on 2026-08-14. Folio 461 recto (pid PA461), running head HAL, carries the entry \"HAMACA, cama de Indios, y es vna gran manta de algodon, o de tela de eruage, con vnos gruessos cordeles de las quatro esquinas: los quales atan a dos arboles, o en dos argollas, y duermen en ellas en el campo, o donde les parece\", with the security from \"malas sauandijas\", the wrapping \"como en vn capullo\" against mosquitoes \"mucho mas fastidiosos que en estas\", and the proposed Hebrew derivation from the verb hhamaK, \"vertere, conuertere\". Folio 188 verso (pid PA188-IA1), running head CAN, carries the entry \"CANOA, es varco hecho ordinariamente de vna pieca como artesa de que vsan los Indios\", the explanation of the Mexican name from Atl and calli as \"casas de agua\", the statement that all such craft are called canoas because that is what they were called \"en sancto Domingo, donde primero estuuieron los Espanoles\", and the hearsay count \"Los nuestros afirman auer en solo Mexico mas de cinquenta mil dellas, con que portean gentes, y traen bastimentos\". In this volume PA*n* is folio *n* recto and PA*n*-IA1 the verso. Reliability 0.9: these are the printed sheets, but the etymologies in them are the author's own and he warns in his preface that some he prints are false ones current in speech." }, { "id": "stewart-2015-agave-cam-crop", "title": "Agave as a model CAM crop system for a warming and drying world", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4585221/", "publisher": "J. Ryan Stewart, Frontiers in Plant Science 6:684 (24 September 2015), doi 10.3389/fpls.2015.00684. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Peer-reviewed review article, read as full text on 2026-08-14 and the quoted strings checked against the raw page rather than against a search summary. Used only for the section \"Agave as a source of fiber for ropes and fabric\": that A. fourcroydes (henequen) was cultivated by the Maya for several hundred years for fibre and had been domesticated by the time of Spanish colonization; that it descended from A. angustifolia and is relatively infertile, possibly through interactive effects of its pentaploid nature; that Maya selection produced at least seven landraces (Yaax Ki, Sac Ki, Chucum Ki, Bab Ki, Kitam Ki, Xtuk Ki, Xix Ki) of which only three remain in cultivation (Sac Ki, Yaax Ki, Kitam Ki); that \"soon after colonization, the Spanish recognized the suitability of henequen as a fiber crop, and increased its cultivation\"; that the nineteenth-century scale-up was driven by binder twine for the United States wheat harvest and by ships' ropes, peaked between 1910 and 1914 and left plantations abandoned by the 1950s; that the preference of the cordage industry for the Sac Ki landrace \"ultimately led to the demise of several other landraces\"; and that A. sisalana presumably originated in Chiapas, reached Florida from Yucatan in 1836, and founded the Tanzanian industry from 1,000 bulbils ordered in 1893 of which only 62 survived the shipment. The article is a plant-science review and not a work of history: its historical statements are reported at second hand from the botanical literature it cites (chiefly Colunga-GarciaMarin and collaborators), which is why the historical claims resting on it here carry confidence at or below 0.8 and why the object is tiered secondary." }, { "id": "soto-deliberacion-causa-de-los-pobres-1545", "title": "Deliberacion en la causa de los pobres, del maestro Fray Domingo de Soto catedratico de teologia en Salamanca, y prior de Santisteuan de la orden de los predicadores. Al muy alto y muy poderoso senor el Principe de Espana don Philippe", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=S3hMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Fray Domingo de Soto, O.P.; Juan de Junta, 1545. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-14: PP7, the dedication to Prince Philip that carries the full title; PP13, the prologue narrative of the printing of the year forty-four at Medina del Campo and of the further chapters the cities then framed; PP15, the opening of chapter iij on vagabonds and the distinction between feigned and genuine poor; PP17 and PP21, the divine, natural and positive laws Soto recites against sturdy beggars, including the Partidas title and the Briviesca law of 1387; PP27, the fourth and fifth reasons why the genuine poor may go from one land to another. The volume metadata gives Juan de Junta and 1545; no colophon page was opened this run, so the city of printing is not asserted from the sheets. Reliability is set below the tier because the tract is an advocate's brief written to win a case before the prince, not a disinterested account." }, { "id": "medina-orden-de-la-limosna-1545", "title": "De la orden que en algunos pueblos de Espana se ha puesto en la limosna: para remedio de los verdaderos pobres", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=S3hMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP101", "publisher": "Fray Juan de Medina, abbot of the monastery of San Vicente de Salamanca, O.S.B.; Juan de Junta, 1545, bound in the same volume as Soto's Deliberacion. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The reply to Soto, bound after it in the same 1545 volume and read as page scans on 2026-08-14: PP101, its own title page under the royal arms, which names no author; PP103, the dedication to Prince Philip that does, and that narrates how the Cardinal of Toledo charged the writer at Valladolid to set down his grounds, and how the reform began at Zamora and passed to Salamanca and Valladolid; PP105, the appeal to what the king ordered in the year forty; PP116, the argument that it is better that nobody should need to beg; PP191, the doctrine that freedoms held by natural right may be withdrawn for the public good; PP199, the report of the two Saturdays in February on which the poor of the city were publicly asked whether they were content. Reliability is set below the tier for the same reason as its opponent: it is a brief by the man who advised the measure it defends, and its survey of the poor is his own report of his own reform." }, { "id": "sanetomo-gebhardt-2015-potato-cytoplasm", "title": "Cytoplasmic genome types of European potatoes and their effects on complex agronomic traits", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4480903/", "publisher": "Rena Sanetomo and Christiane Gebhardt, BMC Plant Biology, 2015; open access on PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read on 2026-08-14 for the introduction history only. Verified as present in the article text - that the first introduction into Europe is thought to have been Solanum tuberosum ssp. andigena, that Chilean forms of ssp. tuberosum introduced later became the ancestors of modern cultivars, and that T-type cytoplasm predominates in European potatoes because most varieties descend maternally from Rough Purple Chili and a few other ssp. tuberosum clones. The paper is a genetics study, not a history: its historical sentences are background, which is why the claim resting on them carries confidence at 0.8 and no date or route of arrival in Spain is asserted from it." }, { "id": "perez-de-ribas-triumphos-madrid-1645", "title": "Andres Perez de Ribas, Historia de los triumphos de nuestra santa fee entre gentes las mas barbaras, y fieras del nueuo Orbe (Madrid, 1645)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=FHZkAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "Alonso de Paredes, Madrid, 1645. First edition; full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id FHZkAAAAcAAJ, 820 page images)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The first edition of the folio, read as page scans on 2026-08-14. Pages opened - PP7, the title page, giving the imprint \"En Madrid. Por Alonso de Paredes, junto a los Estudios de la Compania\", the year 1645, the dedication to Philip IV and the author's description of himself as provincial in New Spain, native of Cordoba; page 6, subsistence, houses, maize yields, mesquite, mescal and nopal; page 12, weaving without looms and the passage on the vices these nations lack; page 21, missionaries learning languages with no grammar or dictionary and the admiration for their invariable rules; page 22, the statement that speaking their language quiets, represses, wins and subjects, and the reduction of the languages to arte y metodo; page 46, the smallpox and measles epidemic and its reading as providence; page 299, the Yaqui peace and the children left as hostages in the mission seminary; page 636, the justification of the silver mines and the marco of San Luis Potosi. Tier primary because these are the sheets of the first printing. Reliability 0.8 rather than higher because the witness is the Society's own provincial writing an apologia for its missions and dedicating it to the crown that funded them - excellent for what the author saw, said and believed, weak as an independent check on numbers, motives or the conduct of others." }, { "id": "arte-lengua-cahita-buelna-1890", "title": "Arte de la lengua cahita por un padre de la Compania de Jesus (Mexico, 1737), text as republished by Eustaquio Buelna, Mexico, 1890", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=acVQAAAAMAAJ", "publisher": "Imprenta del Gobierno Federal, en el Ex-Arzobispado, Mexico, 1890. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id acVQAAAAMAAJ), copy of the University of Texas", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-14. This id covers the reprinted eighteenth-century text - the dedication to Francis Xavier on page 1 and the grammar itself, of which paragraphs 74 to 76 on page 26 were opened (the frequentative in sisime and sasaca, and the letters the language lacks). Tiered secondary, not primary, on the editor's own account of his method - he reset the text in new type and normalised part of its orthography, saying so and saying where he abstained - which is the same reasoning that tiers the 1898 Gilberti reprint secondary in this corpus. Reliability 0.8 because the changes are declared and deliberately conservative. The sheets of the 1737 Mexico printing were not seen." }, { "id": "buelna-introduccion-cahita-1890", "title": "Eustaquio Buelna, Introduccion and notes to the Arte de la lengua cahita (Mexico, 1890)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=acVQAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR5", "publisher": "Imprenta del Gobierno Federal, en el Ex-Arzobispado, Mexico, 1890. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id acVQAAAAMAAJ)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The editor's own prose, registered separately from the text he reprints because it is nineteenth-century scholarship of uneven quality. Pages read on 2026-08-14 - PR5, the dedication signed at Mexico on 28 January 1892 and the opening of the introduction with the count of three surviving copies; PR7, the attribution of the grammar to Juan Bautista de Velasco through Perez de Ribas book 3 chapter 34 and Alegre book 4, and the warning against confusing him with Pedro de Velasco; PR8, the 1737 Mexico imprint of Francisco Javier Sanchez, the authorship of the catechism by Tomas Basilio who entered the Yaqui in 1617 with Perez de Ribas; PR9, the orthographic confusion of the original, the editor's statement of his own scant knowledge of the language, and the architecture of 373 paragraphs in four parts with a vocabulary of more than 1,700 words; PR11, the extent of the Cahita country, the Tehueco dialect and the state of the language in 1890. Reliability 0.7 because the same pages carry a nineteenth-century racial explanation of the language's formation by the influence of \"esta raza superior\", and because the attribution of the grammar is his inference from two seventeenth and eighteenth-century historians rather than a document." }, { "id": "sabuco-nueva-filosofia-madrid-1728", "title": "Oliva Sabuco de Nantes Barrera, Nueva filosofia de la naturaleza del hombre (Madrid, 1728), fourth impression", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=4_-FIEUESrsC", "publisher": "Imprenta de Domingo Fernandez, a costa de Francisco Lopez Fernandez, Madrid, 1728. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id 4_-FIEUESrsC, 448 page images), copy of the Biblioteca de la Universidad Central", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-14. Pages opened - PP5, the title page with the imprint, the description of the volume as the fourth impression corrected of the errata of the preceding ones and carrying an Elogio by Dr Martin Martinez, and the declaration that the impression is expurgated according to the expurgatory index published by the Holy Office in 1707; PP7, the opening of the dedicatory letter to the king in a female first person; PP11, a later leaf of the same letter with the request that the doctrine be tried for one year and the demand that usurpers of \"estas verdades de mi invencion\" be ordered to desist; PP15, the sonnets in praise of the author by Juan de Sotomayor of Alcaraz; page 19, sadness drying the juice of the brain and the remedies for it. Tier primary because this is a digitised original imprint opened directly, but reliability 0.75 and no claim in this corpus may treat it as the author's text - it is the fourth impression, editorially corrected and expurgated under the Index of 1707, so wording, and anything the censor removed, are not recoverable from it. It establishes nothing about the date of the first edition, the author's biography, or the modern dispute over the work's authorship, none of which were sourced for this corpus." }, { "id": "diccionario-universal-mexico-1853-colegio-de-san-ignacio", "title": "The article COLEGIO DE SAN IGNACIO DE LOYOLA (las Vizcainas) in the Diccionario universal de historia y de geografia, Mexican edition", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=9SUQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA367", "publisher": "Lucas Alaman, Manuel Orozco y Berra and others; Mexico, Tipografia de Rafael, 1853, 756 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as a page scan on 2026-08-14 through the anchored click3 page-image route at w=1800; page 367, running head COL, is fully legible. The Mexican edition is the Spanish Diccionario universal \"refundida y aumentada considerablemente para su publicacion en Mexico\", and this article is the substantial one on the college: it prints the site measurements and price (150 by 163 varas, area 24,450, 33,618 pesos), the first stone on 31 July 1734, 583,118 pesos spent to 1767, the endowment funds article by article, the cedula of Carlos III of 1 September 1753, the constitutions in summary, and the composition and working of the governing mesa. It is also the source of the two hardest sentences used here: that the government and principal direction of the college \"es enteramente secular con inhibicion total del eclesiastico y solo estaba sujeto al rey\", and that the colegialas \"debian ser precisamente hijas legitimas espanolas y no indias ni otras castas\". A mid-nineteenth-century Mexican reference work written partly by people close to the institution and admiring of it; registered secondary and never used here for anything the 1867 Memoria contradicts." }, { "id": "orozco-y-berra-memoria-plano-mexico-1867-colegios", "title": "Memoria para el plano de la ciudad de Mexico - the sections COLEGIO DE SANTA MARIA DE LA CARIDAD, COLEGIO DE SAN IGNACIO and INSTRUCCION PRIMARIA", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=UX-K43hmxUQC&pg=PA190", "publisher": "Manuel Orozco y Berra; Mexico, Imprenta de Santiago White, 1867, 252 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-14 (pages 190, 191 and 193) through the anchored click3 route at w=1800. A survey of the city compiled by order of the Ministry of Fomento, so its 1866 figures are official returns and its historical paragraphs are compilation. This registration covers only the two college sections and the primary-instruction section; the same volume is registered separately in this corpus for its hospital sections under a different id, and the two entries must not be merged. Orozco y Berra flags the 1732 foundation anecdote himself with \"Dicese que\", which is why the claim resting on it is held at 0.7. Independently corroborates the 1853 Diccionario on the 33,618-peso site, the first stone of 31 July 1734, the 583,118 pesos spent to 1767 and the cedula of 1 September 1753." }, { "id": "pezuela-diccionario-cuba-t4-1866-presupuestos", "title": "Diccionario geografico, estadistico, historico de la Isla de Cuba, tomo IV - the printed municipal budgets of Matanzas and of the jurisdiction of Nuevitas", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=W70d3Btb3UAC&pg=PA146", "publisher": "Jacobo de la Pezuela; Madrid, 1866, 706 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-14 (pages 42 and 146) through the anchored click3 route at w=1800. The scanned title page (PP5) carries the title and \"TOMO IV\" but no imprint; the year comes from the volume feed entry, which gives Pezuela, 1866 and 706 pages, and two Google scans of this same tomo disagree on the printer (J. Bernat against Imprenta del Establecimiento de Mellado), so no printer is asserted here. What the pages carry is the budgets themselves, article by article, under the heading \"Presupuesto de los gastos e ingresos municipales de la J. de Nuevitas para el ano de 1863\" and the corresponding tables for Matanzas. The scan renders the printed digits 1 and 4 near-identically, so every figure taken from these pages was reconciled against the chapter totals the source itself prints before being used; the reconciliations are stated in the object. Pezuela is a Spanish colonial official writing inside the slaveholding order, and the budgets he prints are budgets, not audited accounts." }, { "id": "pezuela-diccionario-cuba-t4-1866-marina", "title": "Diccionario geografico, estadistico, historico de la Isla de Cuba, tomo IV - the article MARINA, on shipbuilding, timber cutting and naval expenditure", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=W70d3Btb3UAC&pg=PA6", "publisher": "Jacobo de la Pezuela; Madrid, 1866, 706 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-14 (pages 6 and 7, running head MAR) through the anchored click3 route at w=1800. Imprint as for the budgets entry above; the two registrations are kept apart because they are different articles used for different objects. The article narrates the timber regime from the cedula of 1622 through the 1774 dispute between the Captain General and the Comandante general del Apostadero, the junta created by royal order of 14 February 1800 and the royal order of 30 August 1805, and then prints a table of naval expenditure on the island since 1763 totalling 74,593,662 pesos fuertes. It is openly advocacy: the article argues that Spain cannot recover its naval standing without the Havana Arsenal and that its \"resurreccion, sea antes, sea despues, es infalible\". It is also honest about its own limits, stating that the Havana accounting office lost an immense number of documents during the English occupation and that the figures are only approximate deductions. Registered secondary at 0.7 and used for the sequence of measures, not for the advocacy." }, { "id": "maldonado-relacion-de-meritos-1744", "title": "Relacion de los meritos, y servicios de D. Pedro Maldonado Sotomayor, Governador, Theniente de Capitan General de la Provincia de las Esmeraldas, y de los de sus Padres, y Ascendientes", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=CbeSoi9s2gIC", "publisher": "Printed relacion de meritos; no imprint appears on the sheet. Catalogued by the digitiser as 1744, 18 pages, from a British Museum copy. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "A printed relacion de meritos: the genre exists to obtain reward from the crown, so it is an interested account of its own subject, and the reliability figure reflects that. It is nevertheless a document of 1744 rather than a later summary, and it quotes and dates the administrative papers it rests on - informes of the cabildo of Riobamba (letter of 5 March 1743) and of the cabildo of Quito (letter of 12 April 1743), a testimonio de autos given at Quito by the escrivano de camara Manuel Rodriguez de la Parra, and letters of the president of the Audiencia of Quito of 7 November 1741 and of the cabildo of 12 April 1743. Read as page scans on 2026-08-14: the head-title leaf and the pages numbered 1 to 5." }, { "id": "bouguer-relation-abregee-1744", "title": "Pierre Bouguer, 'Relation abregee du voyage fait au Perou par Messieurs de l'Academie royale des sciences, pour mesurer les degres du meridien aux environs de l'Equateur, & en conclurre la figure de la Terre'", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=-11FAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "In Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences, avec les memoires de mathematique et de physique pour la meme annee 1744 (Paris, DuPont, printed 1748), pp. 249ff. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The participant's own account, marked on its opening page as read in the public assembly of the Academy on 14 November 1744. Used here for one paragraph only - the passage at p. 290 in which Bouguer records meeting the Indians of the Esmeraldas gathered to receive their governor Don Pedro Maldonado. Read as page scans on 2026-08-14 (pp. 249, 289, 290, 291)." }, { "id": "lacondamine-journal-du-voyage-1751", "title": "Charles-Marie de La Condamine, journal of the equatorial voyage: preface, sommaire and 'Introduction historique'", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=pD9RAAAAYAAJ", "publisher": "Paris, 1751. The digitised volume (356 pages) is catalogued by Google Books under the series title 'Histoire de l'Academie royale des sciences'. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The title page is not present in this scan, so the work is identified here from its own preface, which opens \"Nous partimes de France, M. Godin, M. Bouguer & moi, en 1735, envoyes par ordre du Roi dans l'Amerique espagnole\", states that the author is giving the history of the academic voyage in 1751, and from the running head \"INTRODUCTION\" over the pages cited. Used for the sommaire of the year 1743 (p. xxxiv) and for the notice of Maldonado's death and character at p. 210. The volume contradicts itself on the date of that death - a footnote at p. 56 reads \"Mort a Londres le 16 Novembre 1748\" and the notice at p. 210 says \"il mourut le 17 Novembre 1748\" - and both readings are carried rather than resolved. Read as page scans on 2026-08-14." }, { "id": "abad-queipo-coleccion-escritos-1813", "title": "Coleccion de los escritos mas importantes que en diferentes epocas dirigio al gobierno D. Manuel Abad Queipo, obispo electo de Michoacan", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9OMpxrfO0YC", "publisher": "Mexico, en la oficina de D. Mariano Ontiveros, 1813 (184 pages). Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Prints the texts of Abad y Queipo's own representaciones to the government, and is the primary witness used here for their wording. It is not a neutral edition and does not pretend to be: its title page states that the writings are given to the light \"en contraposicion de las calumnias atroces que han publicado los cabecillas insurgentes, a fin de hacerle odioso con el pueblo\", which is why every claim about the author's standing or motives sits at or below 0.8, and why the royal legislation described inside it is treated as reported rather than read. Read as page scans on 2026-08-14: the title page and the pages numbered 50, 52, 56, 66, 95 and 99." }, { "id": "esteyneffer-florilegio-medicinal-1712-mexico", "title": "Florilegio medicinal de todas las enfermedades, sacado de varios, y clasicos Authores, para bien de los Pobres, y de los que tienen falta de Medicos, en particular para las Provincias Remotas, en donde administran los RR. PP. Missioneros de la Compañia de Jesus", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=muMd05jTYSkC&pg=PP9", "publisher": "El Hermano Juan de Esteyneffer, Coadjutor Reformado de la Compañia de Jesus; en Mexico por los Herederos de Juan Joseph Guillena Carrascoso, en el Empedradillo, 1712. Full-view digitisation, Google Books, 566 page images", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The 1712 Mexico City first edition, read as page scans on 2026-08-14. The volume carries no served OCR text - SearchWithinVolume returns page ids with empty snippets - so every quotation here was transcribed from the page image at w=1600. Pages read: PP9 (title page and imprint), PP15 (dedication to the missionary fathers, the confessor-and-physician passage), PP17 (the dedication's signature), PP29 (opening of the \"Algunas Advertencias al Lector benevolo\", naming Topia, Sinaloa, Tepehuanes, Tarahumara, Sonora and California and the degrees of longitude and latitude they span), PP35-PP36 (close of the same prologue: household versus apothecary remedies, substitution of ingredients, \"tierras tan desamparadas, de todo Medico, y Medicinas\", and the author's statement that Castilian is not his native tongue), PA6 (printed p. 3, Libro I cap. I, regimen and fumigations), PA25 (printed p. 22, De la Perlesia, the purgatives), PA476 (printed p. 476, the country purges of Sonora and Sinaloa). Page-image pids and printed folio numbers differ; both are given in the claims." }, { "id": "ulloa-noticias-americanas-1772-madrid", "title": "Noticias americanas: entretenimientos phisicos-historicos, sobre la América Meridional, y la Septentrianal oriental", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=fQVcAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Don Antonio de Ulloa, Comendador de Ocaña en el Orden de Santiago, Gefe de Esquadra de la Real Armada; en Madrid, en la Imprenta de Don Francisco Manuel de Mena, Calle de las Carretas, 1772. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The 1772 Madrid first edition, read as page scans on 2026-08-14; the volume serves no OCR text, so quotations were transcribed from the images. Pages read: PP5 (title page, full sub-title and imprint, and the author's styling as fellow of the Royal Society of London and of the academies of Stockholm and Berlin), PA286 (opening of Entretenimiento XVI on fossils and petrifications), PA293 (petrified bivalves in the heights around Huancavelica, and the distinction drawn from the unpetrified shell banks of Chile), PA306-PA307 (Entretenimiento XVII: the rejection of climatic explanations of human colour, and the racial typology stated on the very next page), PA350 (opening of Entretenimiento XX on the antiquities of the Indians of Peru)." }, { "id": "hidalgo-aguero-thesoro-cirugia-1624", "title": "Thesoro de la verdadera cirugia y via particular contra la comun, compuesto por el Dotor Bartolome Hidalgo de Aguero Medico y Cirujano, con la qual se haze vn perfeto Cirujano", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=f16j5V-9epcC&pg=PP3", "publisher": "Barcelona, por Sebastian de Cormellas y a su costa, ano 1624. Con licencia. Full-view digitisation of the British Library copy, shelfmark RB.23.a.16240, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-14 through the signed page-image chain. This is the 1624 Barcelona printing by Sebastian de Cormellas, not the Seville first edition of 1604: the author, a Seville physician and surgeon, was already dead when it was first printed, and the censura bound into this copy is dated 1596. The volume runs to 582 numbered pages and contains, besides the treatises, a \"Respuesta del dotor Hidalgo\" whose running head appears on the pages read - so the book carries its own controversy inside it. Leaves opened and read: PP3, the title page with the Cormellas imprint and the date 1624; PP4, the verso of the preceding leaf, showing the show-through of the censura and the British Library shelfmark; PP5, the censura of the licenciado Dionysio Daca Chacon, physician and surgeon to Philip II, dated Madrid 25 March 1596; page 66 of the Tratado Primero, carrying the hospital register counts for 1583 with the marginal note \"El numero de los heridos que sanan por esta via, es mayor que por la comun\"; and page 322, under the running head \"Respuesta del dotor Hidalgo\", where the method is stated negatively - no legras, no taladros, no leuantadores - and the opponents are described as writing against what they have not seen. Reliability is set below 1 because the tallies on page 66 are the author's own report of a register the reader cannot inspect, and because the book is a polemic for one side of a surgical dispute, printed by that side." }, { "id": "almanaque-nautico-1856", "title": "Almanaque Nautico para el ano 1856, calculado de orden de S.M. en el Observatorio de Marina de la Ciudad de San Fernando", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=2rwNcw_yJawC&pg=PR1", "publisher": "San Fernando, Imprenta y libreria Espanola a cargo de D. Juan Alvarez, calle Real numero 47, 1854. Full-view digitisation, shelfmark R.133858, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-14. One annual volume of the ephemeris series published by the Spanish navy's observatory: the volume for the year 1856, printed two years ahead in 1854. Leaves opened and read: PR1, the title page, which carries the observatory's seal and, at the foot, the price line \"Precio de este Almanaque 25 rs. en la Peninsula y 30 rs. vn. o 12 rs. plata fuerte en Ultramar\"; page (v), the opening of the prologo, which numbers the volume 65 of the collection, states that it is calculated for mean time of the San Fernando meridian, undertakes to set out the foundations and methods of calculation so that the reader can judge how much confidence each article deserves, and gives the precession and mean-obliquity expressions taken from Bessel's Tabulae Regiomontanae; and page (xiii), the last page of the prologo, which records the delay caused by the cholera epidemic of August-October 1854 and the verification protocol, signed \"Observatorio de San Fernando 30 de Diciembre de 1854, El Director del Observatorio, Saturnino Montojo\". The volume's search layer also indexes an errata table for 1856; that leaf was not opened and nothing is bound to it. Reliability is set below 1 because a single annual volume is a witness to its own series and its own claims about that series, and cannot show who abroad or overseas actually used it." }, { "id": "recopilacion-indias-1791-t1-colegios-e-interpretes", "title": "Recopilación de leyes de los reynos de las Indias … Quarta impresión — Tomo Primero: Libro I, título XXIII (De los Colegios y Seminarios) and Libro II, título XXVIIII (De los Intérpretes)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=P1xp68LXgw8C&pg=PA212", "publisher": "Madrid, por la Viuda de D. Joaquín Ibarra, impresora del Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias, 1791. Universidad Complutense de Madrid copy, full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The same volume and copy registered in this corpus as recopilacion-indias-1791-t1; this entry is a separate reading of two títulos that entry does not cover, and is kept apart so that the pages actually opened stay attached to the claims that rest on them. Pages read as page images at &w=1800 on 2026-08-14 — PA211 and PA212, the end of título XXIII, with ley viij on the two colegiales each Tridentine seminary of Peru and Tierra Firme sends to San Martín de Lima, leyes viiij and x on the rectors and the theologians of San Felipe and San Martín, the rubric of ley xj \"Que sean favorecidos los Colegios fundados para criar hijos de Caciques, y se funden otros en las Ciudades principales\" with its margin authorities (the Emperor and the Empress Governor, Madrid 8 December 1535; the Cardinal Governor there, 19 June 1540; the Princess Governor, Valladolid 27 April 1554; Felipe II, San Lorenzo 22 July 1579 and the Instrucción de Vireyes of that year, cap. 59; Felipe III, Madrid 17 March 1619 and 20 March 1620) and its full text; ley xij on the Colegio de Españoles, Mestizos é Indios and the Hospital of Michoacán taken into the Patronazgo Real, margin \"El Emperador D. Cárlos en Barcelona á 1 de Mayo de 1543\"; ley xiij on San Pedro y San Pablo de México; ley xiiij on the Colegio of poor mestizo boys of Mexico City and its ordinances of 1557; PA213, the close of the título and the opening of título XXIV. PA477 to PA480, título XXVIIII \"De los Intérpretes\" entire, leyes j to xiiij, with the margin authorities of each; the título ends at ley xiiij and título XXX (porteros) begins on PA480. Nothing is claimed from pages not listed here." }, { "id": "esquilache-relacion-de-gobierno-lima-1621", "title": "Relación de gobierno of Francisco de Borja y Aragón, príncipe de Esquilache, viceroy of Peru, printed in Memorias de los vireyes que han gobernado el Perú — tomo primero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=LQawwZKEoxkC&pg=PA119", "publisher": "Impresas de órden suprema; Lima, Librería Central de Felipe Bailly, editor, 1859. Full-view digitisation of the copy carrying the running head MEMORIAS DE LOS VIREYES, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The outgoing viceroy's own account to his successor, as transcribed in the 1859 Lima collection printed by order of the Peruvian government; the corpus already registers a different digitisation of the same collection as memorias-vireyes-peru-1859-t1, read at other pages. What is opened here is an 1859 transcription of a 1621 relación, not the manuscript, which is why reliability sits below the tier. Pages read as page images at &w=1800 on 2026-08-14 — PA118, the passages on sede vacante and interim appointments in the doctrinas and the sentence that opens the section, \"La mas precisa obligacion que carga sobre la conciencia de Su Majestad y de su Virey es la conversion y enseñanza de los Indios\"; PA119, under the running head DON FRANCISCO DE BORJA, the foundation at Santiago del Cercado of a seminary for sons of caciques of the archbishopric in the charge of the Jesuits together with a Casa de Reclusión for the dogmatizadores and ministers of idolatry, the two further seminaries being founded by his order at Cuzco and Chuquisaca, the ordinances made for all of them and the maintenance assigned \"de lo procedido de los censos de sus comunidades\", the royal declaration that this hacienda could not be spent on any ministry of such utility, the charge of the two seminaries to the Compañía \"juntamente con la visita de las idolatrías, en compañía de los Visitadores Eclesiásticos\", and the statement that he founded no Casas de Reclusión at Cuzco and Chuquisaca because those treasuries lacked substance; PA120, the order to the prelates to send continuous visitadores for idolatries as \"el único remedio de este mal\" with the guilty shut up in convents for the time their guilt deserved, the doubt over who pays those visitadores, and the passage on the Compañía as of the greatest use \"así para la extirpacion de las Idolatrías, como para la enseñanza de los Indios\" and its two new university chairs of Arts and Theology." }, { "id": "belena-1787-indios-e-interpretes", "title": "Auto de gobierno of Luis de Velasco on quitas y vacaciones (Mexico, 19 January 1555) and the bando of the Real Sala of 23 February 1768 headed 'Indios é Intérpretes', in Eusebio Bentura Beleña, Recopilación sumaria de los autos acordados de la Real Audiencia de esta Nueva España", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=MzFAAAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1-PA103", "publisher": "Mexico, por Don Felipe de Zúñiga y Ontiveros, 1787. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The same 1787 Mexico compilation registered in this corpus as belena-recopilacion-sumaria-1787-autos; this entry covers two documents in it that the other entry does not, and is kept separate so the pages opened stay attached to the claims. What is read is an eighteenth-century printing of earlier administrative acts, not the originals, which is why reliability sits below the tier. Pages read as page images at &w=1800 on 2026-08-14 — RA1-PA102, the margin heading \"Quitas y Vacaciones. Auto de Gobierno de 19 de Enero de 1555, y otro de 8 de Julio de 1567\" and the opening of item CXIII, \"Don Luis de Velasco Visorey é Gobernador por S. M. en esta Nueva España\"; RA1-PA103, its continuation, in which the sixteen-month corregidor terms paid as one year are ordered so that the resulting quitas y vacaciones pay, among others, the persons who visit the pueblos de indios unable to meet their tribute \"y al Escribano é Intérprete á quien S. M. tiene mandado que se les paguen sus salarios de las dichas quitas é vacaciones, y que no vayan á costa de los Indios\"; RA2-PA60, the margin headings \"Bando de la Real Sala de 23 de Febrero de 1768. Aprobado por Real Cédula de 18 de Julio del mismo\" and \"Indios é Intérpretes\", carrying article XVII entire — the order that all justices of the capital and of the countryside conform to the laws of título 29, libro 2 of the Recopilación de Indias, that the naguatlatos or interpreters be examined and sworn, that declarations record whether the interpreter is jurado perpetuo por nombramiento or named for that cause, that the appointment of the Juzgado's interpreter be preceded by the calificación of the justices and cabildo where there are any, that Indian defendants be advised of their liberty to place a ladino of their own beside the official naguatlato, and that Indians not be condemned in costs, have goods embargoed or pay carcelage in any jail or Tecpan, under a penalty of two hundred pesos. Article XVIII on the same page, prohibiting the gatherings called jamaicas under penalties of obraje, presidio and the recogimiento, is read but bound only where the object says so." }, { "id": "gutierrez-ensenanza-publica-1915-nautica", "title": "Origen y desarrollo de la enseñanza pública superior en Buenos Aires, chapter on the Escuela de Náutica y Matemática: noticias históricas", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=spNDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA139", "publisher": "Juan María Gutiérrez, Buenos Aires, La Cultura Argentina, 1915, 656 pages; full-view scan of the volume", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page images on 2026-08-14 at PA138 to PA142. Nineteenth-century history by the rector who reorganised the University of Buenos Aires, reprinted in 1915; it quotes the consular records, the Gaceta de Buenos Aires and the Telégrafo Mercantil rather than reproducing them at this point, which is why it is registered secondary. Used for the opening of the nautical school under Pedro Cerviño and Juan Alsina with fifteen pupils, Belgrano named as its true creator, the public examinations of 10-13 March 1802 before the viceroy with their subject list, 407 propositions, named pupils and examiners, the prizes distributed by Viceroy Del Pino, the Spanish court's suppression of the academy and the drawing school as \"de mero lujo\" with a reprimand to the Consulado, the opening of the mathematics school under Felipe Sentenach on 12 September 1810, its military purpose, and Sentenach's execution on 11 July 1812. The page prints the opening date as \"26 de Noviembre del año 1779\", which contradicts the same paragraph and the 1802 speech in the appendix; the discrepancy is carried into the object rather than corrected." }, { "id": "gutierrez-ensenanza-publica-1915-apendice-belgrano-1802", "title": "Discurso pronunciado por el Secretario del Consulado D. Manuel Belgrano el día 13 de marzo de 1802, in the documentary appendix of Origen y desarrollo de la enseñanza pública superior en Buenos Aires", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=spNDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA147", "publisher": "Manuel Belgrano, 1802, reprinted in Juan María Gutiérrez, Buenos Aires, La Cultura Argentina, 1915, appendix to chapter on the Escuela de Náutica", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page images on 2026-08-14 at PA147, PA149 and PA151. The speech given at the distribution of prizes to the outstanding pupils of the Academia de Náutica, printed here in full and in quotation marks by the editor. It is a reprint of an 1802 text rather than the 1802 impression, so it is registered secondary and one notch below a first printing, on the same reasoning the corpus applies to other documentary appendices. Used for the five hours of daily attendance fixed by the regulation, the private examinations every three months, Cerviño left as sole director within days of the opening, pupils able to raise and wash plans and to compete with pilots in theory, the opposition the corporation had to overcome, and the archive of acuerdos, representations, letters to savants and orders of instruments and prize books that Belgrano offers as proof of the guild's effort. The speaker is the school's own promoter praising his own corporation, which is why claims bound to it sit at 0.8 and below." }, { "id": "gutierrez-ensenanza-publica-1915-dibujo", "title": "Origen y desarrollo de la enseñanza pública superior en Buenos Aires, capítulo VIII: Escuela de dibujo (desde 1799), noticias históricas", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=spNDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA203", "publisher": "Juan María Gutiérrez, Buenos Aires, La Cultura Argentina, 1915", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page images on 2026-08-14 at PA203 to PA206. Used for the consular minute of 15 March 1799 with its budget of 281 pesos 4 reales and 20 pesos monthly, the guild's \"repugnancia manifiesta\", the condition of reporting to the Court, the closure after three years, Manuel Moreno's mistaken date of 1796 rectified by Mitre, the 1815 revival by Fray Francisco de Paula Castañeda, the hall for two hundred pupils, the printed harangue that raised 580 pesos, the borrowed collection of engravings destined for Chile, the night school under the engraver José Rousseau with Aldama as assistant, the faulty copying method, the annual January public examinations, the interruption of 1820 and reopening on 25 October 1820 with a hundred pupils, and the 1823 school under José Guth with donations of 1,950 pesos fuertes against 559 pesos of costs. The chapter's footnote quotes the royal resolution of Aranjuez, 4 April 1800, signed Soler, refusing to authorise the expense because of \"las graves urgencias del Estado\"; the footnote gives the establishment cost as 181 ps. 4 rs. against the 281 pesos 4 reales of the narrative, and both readings are carried into the object." }, { "id": "gutierrez-ensenanza-publica-1915-apendice-castaneda", "title": "Apéndice de documentos to the chapter on the Escuela de dibujo: artículo de Camilo Henríquez (1815) and copia de un oficio remitido al Consulado by Fray Francisco de Paula Castañeda", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=spNDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA213", "publisher": "Francisco de Paula Castañeda and Camilo Henríquez, 1815, reprinted in Juan María Gutiérrez, Buenos Aires, La Cultura Argentina, 1915", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page images on 2026-08-14 at PA213 to PA216. Reprints of 1815 texts rather than the original impressions, hence secondary. Used for the close of Castañeda's allocution presenting eighteen young men trained in six months as an advance tithe of the eighteen thousand he hoped to give the country, and for his letter to the prior and consuls: the 580 pesos produced by the printed harangue, the two hundred pesos a year for life he had offered and expected to lose over \"una de las muchas etiquetas simples que hemos heredado de los españoles\", his suspension by his own order, and his charge that the European friars exiled to Catamarca at the patriot friars' request kept flourishing schools while \"nosotros empeñados en perseguirnos unos a otros hemos acabado ya con las que teníamos\". A partisan witness arguing against his own side, which is what makes the last passage usable." }, { "id": "gutierrez-ensenanza-publica-1915-medicina", "title": "Origen y desarrollo de la enseñanza pública superior en Buenos Aires, capítulo V: Estudios de Medicina y Cirugía (1799-1823), noticias históricas", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=spNDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA341", "publisher": "Juan María Gutiérrez, Buenos Aires, La Cultura Argentina, 1915", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page images on 2026-08-14 at PA341 to PA343. Used for the creation of the Tribunal del Protomedicato with Miguel O'Gorman at its head, dated in this text to a real orden of 18 September 1799 with a footnote recording a first installation in 1780 and the tribunal's staff in the Guía de forasteros of 1797; the chairs of medicine and surgery created by the same act for O'Gorman and Agustín Eusebio Fabre; Fabre's anatomy and surgery school opened in March 1801 with nine pupils under the \"vita et moribus\" and philosophy requirements published in the Telégrafo Mercantil; Cosme Argerich's medical course of March 1802 with fourteen pupils; the absence of laboratory, amphitheatre and dissecting instruments, bought by Fabre himself; the end of the first course in 1806 and the Abeja Argentina's qualified verdict; the reorganisation of 1813 into a military Instituto Médico with five chairs; the decline by 1820 and Argerich's death on 14 February 1820; the salary table of the first provincial budget after 1820 totalling 7,700 pesos; and Bonpland's appointment of 23 March 1821 with Rivero's press protest against filling the chair without competition." }, { "id": "gutierrez-ensenanza-publica-1915-apendice-medicina", "title": "Apéndice de documentos to the chapter on medical studies: circular haciendo saber la creación del proto-medicato, médicos y cirujanos habilitados (1803), noticia sobre el Instituto de Medicina (1813) and reglamento del cuerpo médico para el servicio de los ejércitos (1814)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=spNDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA349", "publisher": "Viceregal circular and Buenos Aires government papers, 1780-1814, reprinted in Juan María Gutiérrez, Buenos Aires, La Cultura Argentina, 1915", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page images on 2026-08-14 at PA349 to PA351. Four documents reprinted by the editor, who states that he copied the circular from a printing with the names, titles and signature left blank and supposes it was addressed by the viceroy to the governors in virtue of the real cédula of 18 September 1779 - a year that contradicts the 1799 of the narrative chapter, and the contradiction is reported in the object. Used for the circular's motive (the disorder and abuses of medicine, surgery, pharmacy and phlebotomy, especially in the distant provinces), its explicit model in the tribunals of Lima and Mexico, the ban on unexamined practice and the order to present titles; for the December 1803 notice of the auto of 17 November against curanderos and the printed list of licensed physicians and surgeons; for the Gaceta ministerial notice of 1 December 1813 announcing the Instituto with its six-year course and accusing \"la política antigua\" of a plan of systematic ignorance meant to perpetuate disease in America; and for articles 1 to 4 of the 1814 regulation making the Instituto's professors and pupils part of the military medical corps. Reprints, not original impressions, hence secondary." }, { "id": "juarros-compendio-guatemala-1857-t1", "title": "Compendio de la historia de la ciudad de Guatemala, escrito por el Br. D. Domingo Juarros, presbítero secular de este arzobispado", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=biNnXHg33BsC&pg=PA152", "publisher": "Guatemala, Tip. Nacional, 1857 (second printing of the compendio first published 1808-1818); 768 pages; full-view digitisation, Google Books, volume id biNnXHg33BsC", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-14 through the anchored click3 page-image route at w=1600; the volume has a search layer (SearchWithinVolume returns page ids but no snippet text) and binds both tomos, the second running under RA1- identifiers. The running feet read \"JUARROS.-Tomo I.\" Volume-level feed record: dc:title \"Compendio de la historia de la ciudad de Guatemala\", dc:creator Domingo Juarros, dc:date 1857, dc:publisher \"Tip. Nacional\", dc:format 768 pages. Tier and reliability are deliberately far apart: these are printed original sheets and, for 1773-1777, the testimony of a man who says he was present (\"aun á los que fuimos testigos de esta tragedia\"), which is primary; but for the seventeenth century Juarros is a compiler working from the foundation autos he cites in his own footnotes, and he writes as a secular priest of the archbishopric with a settled view of his city, so 0.7. A typographic caution that matters for any date taken from this volume: at scan resolution the 1857 types make 1 and 4, and 3 and 5, hard to separate - \"1857\" reads as \"4857\" and \"1773\" as \"1775\" - so years should be fixed by the chronology of the passage and not by the glyph alone. Pages opened and read - PA152, the end of the 1737-1740 dispute over the Audiencia's place at feasts and the opening of \"CAPITULO 5.o De la Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala\", with Marroquín's school and the cédula of 26 March 1546; PA153, the cédula of 16 June 1548 instituting a chair of grammar, the 1559 petition for a university and the 1560 proposal for a Jesuit college, both refused, Marroquín's endowment for twelve colegiales, the Dominicans reading without rent, the Franciscan offer of 1574, and the first lectures in the Colegio de Santo Tomás in 1620; PA154, the grant of degrees under ley 2 tít. 22 lib. 1 of the Recopilación, the degrees given by bishop Juan Zapata in 1625, the Jesuit college and the brief of Gregory XV of 8 August 1621, the 1659 refounding of the Colegio de Santo Tomás with eight colegiales, and the 20,000 pesos left in 1646 by the correo mayor Pedro Crespo Suárez for chairs of laws, medicine and philosophy; PA155, the cédula of 5 July 1675 ordering a junta to weigh \"los provechos y daños que dicha fundacion podia ocasionar\", the junta's favourable report, the cédula of 31 January 1676 instituting the university in the Colegio de Santo Tomás de Aquino, the fitting out of the building, and the footnote \"Consta, lo que aqui referimos, en los autos originales de la fundacion de esta Universidad\"; PA156, the oposiciones held at Guatemala and Mexico and the vote of 6 December 1678 naming the eight founding chairholders including fray José Senoyo for the chair of the Kachiquel language, the cédula of 19 September 1678 annulling the local provision of Canons, Laws and Medicine, the failure of the Mexico competition, the lectures read in the chamber of the Council of the Indies - \"cosa que no contará otra Universidad\" - and the appointment of Amézqueta, Ozaeta and Fernández with the promise of oidor seats after five years; PA157, the compensation of José de Baños y Sotomayor with the chair of Prima and the first rectorship, the cédula of 6 June 1680 ordering statutes, the drafting by the oidor Francisco de Sarasa y Arce, the auto of 20 February 1686 approving them, Baños's death in 1696 and the beginning of annual rectoral elections in 1705, with the footnote on the university's patrons and the 1739 vow to the Immaculate Conception; PA232, the earthquake catalogue - 4 March 1751, the San Francisco of 1757, the Santísima Trinidad of 1765, the San Rafael in Suchiltepéquez, the flood of 8-9 October 1762 that ruined Petapa - and the tremors from May 1773, the shock of 11 June and the ruin of the city on the afternoon of 29 July; PA233, the aftershocks of 7 September and 13 December, the division of the citizenry into those who wanted the city moved and those who argued that no site in the kingdom is free of earth movements, the junta of 4 August 1773 resolving the provisional move to the burgo de la Ermita, the commission sent to inspect the valleys of Jalapa and las Vacas, and the removal of the president and royal tribunals to the Ermita on 6 September; PA234, the assembly of 12-16 January 1774 that voted the formal transfer to the valle de las Vacas, the royal confirmation of 21 July 1775, the cédula of 21 September granting ten years of alcabala revenue for the costs, the installation of the ayuntamiento on the new site on 1 January 1776, the proclamation of 29 July 1777 ordering the old city emptied within a year \"y quede aquel suelo desierto\", the epidemic of petechial fevers that lasted until May 1774, and the smallpox epidemic of 1780; PA80, the geographical entry on Almolonga and on \"La Antigua Guatemala, antes ciudad y Metrópoli del Reino: hoy villa, capital de la provincia de Sacatepequez\", declared a villa in 1799 by cédula of 4 August 1786 and still holding \"de 7 á 8,000 habitantes, algunos españoles, y los mas mulatos\" after the transfer; PA84, the entry on the burgo of la Ermita de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción in the valle de las Vacas - its beginning about 1620 with twenty Indian families brought from the Canalitos hills and exempted from tribute, their petition to president Fernando de Escobedo for a site and ejidos granted on 2 September before the escribano receptor Lorenzo Pérez de Rivera, the church finished in 1725, and the absorption of the town's own alcalde, its two Spanish and two Indian regidores and its curacy once the capital was established beside it." }, { "id": "brocard-guatemala-paleoseismicity-2016", "title": "Guatemala paleoseismicity: from Late Classic Maya collapse to recent fault creep", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5109539/", "publisher": "Gilles Brocard, Flavio S. Anselmetti and Christian Teyssier, Scientific Reports 6:36976 (2016), doi 10.1038/srep36976; open-access copy in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Peer-reviewed paleoseismic study read in full text on 2026-08-14. Cited here for one sentence only, and the entry that cites it says so: \"The repetition of seismic destructions, even on more resilient societies, can motivate city abandonment or relocation, as illustrated in Guatemala by the relocation of the capital city Antigua Guatemala during the 18th century after a series of shallow destructive earthquakes affecting the Central American volcanic arc.\" The paper is about lake-sediment and fault records over a much longer span and supplies no date, magnitude or fault attribution for the earthquake of 1773; it is used as evidence that the relocation is treated in the modern seismological literature as an illustrative case, not as a source for the event itself." }, { "id": "mutis-arcano-de-la-quina-1828", "title": "El arcano de la quina. Discurso que contiene la parte médica de las cuatro especies de Quinas oficinales, sus virtudes eminentes y su legítima preparacion", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=9DqQU4yKcuIC&pg=PR1", "publisher": "Doctor D. José Celestino Mutis, director y gefe de la espedicion botánica de Santa Fé de Bogotá en el nuevo reyno de Granada; obra póstuma dada á luz pública por el doctor D. Manuel Hernandez de Gregorio, boticario en la Corte; Madrid, por Ibarra, impresor de Cámara de S.M., 1828. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The 1828 Madrid printing of the discourse Mutis wrote in Santa Fé in 1793-94, read as page scans on 2026-08-14. This id covers the discourse itself, in Mutis's voice; the editor's historical prologue and his added notes are registered separately as hernandez-de-gregorio-arcano-1828 because they are a different witness. Reliability is set below the tier because the author is arguing for his own four-species scheme against the rival Peruvian expedition. Pages opened: PR1, the title page quoted above; PA23, section VIII - \"La Divina Providencia nos ha franqueado las cuatro Quinas oficinales naranjada (*), roja, amarilla y blanca; especies realmente distintas segun las reglas botánicas, y de virtudes eminentes en su línea, deducidas de la analogía y la esperiencia\", the note preferring \"naranjada\" to \"acanelada\", and the statement that in the years just after the discovery only one species circulated in Europe, \"la Quina naranjada ó primitiva, rescatada en Loxa\", stripped by the harvesters only as high as a man's hand reached and used only in its thick \"Cortezones\"; PA165, on the harm done by ordering the bark \"en toda su substancia\" after Sydenham and Van Swieten, the yellow called \"benignísima\", the naranjada \"calorosa\" and the red \"incendiaria\", with the maceration method of \"nuestro doctor Alsinet\" named; PA207, the protocol - the naranjada is \"entre todas las especies la única directamente febrífuga\", its tisanes ordered two hours before the expected attack, again at the onset of the chill and then every two hours to a total of six doses, with \"de la Quina fermentada no hay que temer malas resultas\"." }, { "id": "hernandez-de-gregorio-arcano-1828", "title": "Prólogo histórico and editorial notes to El arcano de la quina, by Manuel Hernández de Gregorio", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=9DqQU4yKcuIC&pg=PR3", "publisher": "Doctor D. Manuel Hernandez de Gregorio, boticario en la Corte, in Mutis, El arcano de la quina; Madrid, por Ibarra, impresor de Cámara de S.M., 1828. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.65, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The apparatus the 1828 editor wrapped around a text written thirty-five years earlier, read as page scans on 2026-08-14 and registered apart from Mutis's own discourse. Secondary, and at a reliability well below it, because the editor is narrating events of 1636-1800 he did not witness and is a court apothecary writing up a work he is publishing. Pages opened: PR3, the opening of the prologue - the primitive quina, \"que aun no se ha averiguado si es la naranjada de Mutis, ó la oficinal de Linneo, fué descubierta por los indios, y esperimentada por ellos mismos para curar las fiebres muchos años antes de nuestra conquista de las Américas\", the corregidor of Loxa who had it from an Indian and tried it on himself in 1636, the gift in 1638 to the conde de Chinchón (whom this page calls \"Virey del nuevo reino de Granada\"), the countess and the hospital of Lima, the Jesuits carrying it to Spain in 1640, the name \"polvos de los Jesuitas\" general by 1649, still a secret to the English in 1679, its virtues public across Europe only from 1682; PR9, the publication history - Mutis left his papers at the disposal of the Government, the Arcano ran in the diario of Santa Fé de Bogotá from number 89 of Friday 10 May 1793 to number 129 of Friday 14 February 1794 and was then suspended, \"Mr. Roux\" presented it to the National Convention of France as his own production, the Mercurio Peruano printed an incomplete extract in its number 608, and Francisco Antonio Zea published it as a \"Memoria sobre la Quina\" in the Anales de Historia Natural, Madrid 1800, cuaderno quinto, with observations on Ruiz's Quinología; PA11, the royal apothecary's establishment - a boticario mayor, eighteen boticarios de Cámara, two ayudantes and fourteen dependientes, spending in 1808 fifty thousand reales a month on drugs and three hundred arrobas of quina a year, against a hundred arrobas a year in 1788 of which twenty were the King's gifts to foreign courts; the reglamento of seventeen articles formed in 1790 to conserve \"los montes de Loxa que se hallaban destruidos\" and make new plantings; Tomás Ruiz de Quevedo named corregidor of Loxa and Vicente Olmedo botánico-químico, with their salaries; and the first remittance of a hundred arrobas in twenty-five cases in 1792, a second as good in 1793 and a third in 1794 that \"sufrió mil averías\"; PA89, the editor's note (a) on the chemistry of 1820-27 - sulphate of quinine \"directamente febrífugo\" and as infallible in intermittents as the bark of Loxa in all its substance, the febrifuge part residing in the alkalis quinina and cinconina, and Tilloy of Nantes publishing on 7 August 1827 a nine-hour assay by which an ounce of bark yielding nine grains of quinine sulphate is good." }, { "id": "ruiz-pavon-suplemento-quinologia-1801", "title": "Suplemento á la quinologia, en el qual se aumentan las especies de quina nuevamente descubiertas en el Perú por Don Juan Tafalla, y la quina naranjada de Santa Fé con su estampa", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=idWNA-ouZhEC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Don Hipólito Ruiz y Don Josef Pavon, botánicos de la Expedicion del Perú é individuos de la Real Academia Médica Matritense; Madrid, en la imprenta de la viuda e hijo de Marin, 1801. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The 1801 continuation of Ruiz's Quinología of 1792, read as page scans on 2026-08-14. Reliability is set well below the tier because half the volume is an openly partisan brief: its own title page announces the \"Respuesta á la Memoria de las Quinas de Santa Fé, que insertó Don Francisco Zea en los Anales de Historia natural\", and the section heading on page 21 promises a \"demostracion de que estas son muy inferiores á aquellas\". Pages opened: PP5, the title page quoted above, which also announces the answer to \"los reparos ó dudas del Ciudadano Jussieu\"; PA18, the statement that with this description and plate all four Santa Fé quinas are now published with descriptions and plates, the identifications of Cinchona macrocarpa with Mutis's quina blanca and of Cinchona magnifolia with his quina roxa, the doubt over Cinchona ovata as his amarilla, and Tafalla's Chicoplaya barks - if his find is confirmed, three of the four Santa Fé quinas grow in Peru too, all three \"en lugares mucho mas baxos que las Quinas ricas de Loxa\"; PA21, the heading of the answer to Zea and the passage that leaves the medical question to the physicians while quoting, in a footnote, the younger Linnaeus on Mutis - \"In memoriam Josephi Coelestini Mutis, Americes summi Botanici\", Linn. suppl. pl. p. 57; PA37, the sharp core of the dispute - until Mutis applied the name naranjada to his quina nervina \"jamás se habia oido tal nombre en el Comercio de España, ni en la Medicina\", the King's commissioners have always sent the cinnamon-coloured bark of Loxa as the primitive and best, \"Moralmente debemos creer, que la primitiva Quina fuese la misma que en el dia se envia desde Loxa al Rey\", the practical knowledge of it having been passed on progressively by \"aquellos naturales y los Tratantes\"; and the footnote there that the bark Zea takes for the naranjada \"con freqüencia viene mezclada de América con la amarilla, roxa y otras medianas, é inferiores\"." }, { "id": "gimbernat-femoral-hernia-london-1795", "title": "A New Method of Operating for the Femoral Hernia, translated from the Spanish of Don Antonio de Gimbernat, Surgeon to the King of Spain", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ddJkvRUHGm8C&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Antonio de Gimbernat, translated anonymously; London, printed for J. Johnson, St. Paul's Church-Yard, MDCCXCV [1795]. Medical Society of the County of Kings copy, full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Gimbernat's memoir in its English dress, read as page scans on 2026-08-14. It is a translation, so it is a primary witness to what English surgeons were given to read in 1795 and only a mediated witness to Gimbernat's Spanish wording; quotations from it are given as the translator printed them. Reliability sits below the tier because the author is reporting the success of his own operation. Pages opened: PP5, the title page quoted above, which adds \"WITH PLATES. TO WHICH ARE ADDED By the TRANSLATOR, Queries respecting a safer method of performing inoculation; and the treatment of certain fevers\"; PA13, the case against the older approach - the ring \"is destroyed without remedy in both sexes, and in the male an important artery will always be cut\", shown by the experiment Arnaud reports from the Hotel Dieu at Paris before Verdier, Ruffel and Basseul, where Baudou cut the fallopian ligament \"across and forwards\" on a subject dead of a strangulated crural hernia and Ruffel, dissecting after him, \"found the artery really divided\"; PA28-PA29, the evidence base - the two cases he practised himself \"in Barcelona in 1772 and 1773\", both female, and two more communicated by \"Professor Torner, of Barcelona, who was present at both my operations\", a male of 54 operated on 5 June 1786 and recovered by 16 July, and a nun of 68 operated on 23 August 1788 and well by 4 October, both still living, the nun since untroubled \"though she has worn no truss\", the man free for a twelvemonth until \"a violent accident\" produced a hernia in the same place; \"Besides these four successful cases, I am encouraged to make my method public\"; PA44-PA45, the operation itself - the sac laid open and reduction tried by hand first, and if that fails \"it is absolutely necessary to divide the part that occasions the strangulation\", by passing a grooved sound along the internal side of the intestine \"directed obliquely inwards, till it enter the crural ring\", its point resting on the branch of the os pubis and its canal turned to the symphysis pubis, and running a narrow blunt-ended bistoury along that groove." }, { "id": "gimbernat-1795-translator-advertisement", "title": "Advertisement signed T. B., Clifton, June 26, 1795, prefixed to A New Method of Operating for the Femoral Hernia", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ddJkvRUHGm8C&pg=PP7", "publisher": "The unnamed English translator, signing 'T. B.' and dating from Clifton; London, printed for J. Johnson, 1795. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Two pages, read as page scans on 2026-08-14, registered apart from the tract because they are a different author speaking about the reception of Spanish surgery in England. Primary as testimony of what the translator said in 1795, but reliability is held down because it is also a publisher's puff for the book it introduces. PP7 - \"THE superiority of Mr. Gimbernat's method of operating for the femoral or crural hernia will not, I believe, be contested... the patient who is treated according to Mr. Gimbernat's method will infallibly recover; whereas former modes of operating are well known to have been attended with the utmost danger. This was a sufficient motive for undertaking to translate the following tract. I wish my translation may raise some curiosity in our surgeons with regard to the publications of their brethren abroad. Englishmen in general are disposed to undervalue the productions of foreigners; and among surgeons this propensity has, I think, been lately\" - PP8 - \"strengthened by the example of one ignorant man of superior genius. What I have added, I give as mere conjecture\", signed \"T. B.\" and dated \"Clifton, June 26, 1795\". The volume nowhere spells the translator's name out, so nothing here is bound to an identification of him." }, { "id": "gimbernat-nuevo-methodo-hernia-crural-ms", "title": "Nuevo methodo de operar la hernia crural, descubierto y practicado por Dn Antonio Gimbernat, cirujano de Cámara (manuscript copy)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=i5GYMb0gjLMC&pg=PP2", "publisher": "Antonio de Gimbernat; digitised by Google Books under a catalogue record reading 'Madrid, en la imprenta de la viuda de Ibarra, 1793', although the scanned leaves are handwritten throughout", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Opened on 2026-08-14 expecting the 1793 Madrid imprint and found a manuscript copy of the same text: PP2 and PA1 and PA5 are all in a single cursive hand, on unruled leaves, with no title-page typography anywhere. The catalogue record's imprint is therefore not evidence of what these sheets are, and this source is cited only for what the manuscript title page states, which the printed catalogue does not: \"Nuevo methodo de operar la hernia crural. Descubierto y practicado por Dn Antonio Gimbernat, Cirujano de Camara. Leido en la primera Asamblea publica del Rl Colegio de Cirujía de Sn Carlos el dia 9 de Octubre de 1788. Por el mismo Autor, Primer Cathedratico y Director de dicho Rl Colegio.\" PA1 opens the text proper - \"Las enfermedades habituales que mas comunmente afligen la humanidad son sin duda las hernias verdaderas\", with the estimate that more than an eighth part of individuals of all ages and both sexes suffer or have suffered them." }, { "id": "oviedo-historia-1851-tomo1-libro-vii-cap-ii", "title": "Historia general y natural de las Indias, islas y tierra-firme del mar Oceano, primera parte, libro VII capitulo II (del pan de los indios que se llama caçabi) - the text of Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=yw4-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA268", "publisher": "Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes, primer cronista del Nuevo Mundo; publicala la Real Academia de la Historia, cotejada con el codice original, enriquecida con las enmiendas y adiciones del autor, por D. Jose Amador de los Rios. Primera parte. Madrid, Imprenta de la Real Academia de la Historia, 1851. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The same volume already registered as oviedo-historia-1851-tomo1 and as oviedo-historia-1851-tomo1-libros-v-vii, but a further and separate run of pages, registered under its own id so that each id states exactly which sheets were opened. Reliability sits below the tier for the reason given under oviedo-historia-1851-tomo1: the author is a royal official and chronicler writing for the crown that employed him, resident in the Indies as a beneficiary of the settlement he describes. Pages read as page scans on 2026-08-14 through the signed-src chain the learnings files describe: PA268, the close of libro VII capitulo I on maize and Pliny, and the heading of capitulo II, \"Del pan de los indios que se llama caçabi, que es la segunda manera de pan que en esta Isla Española é otras partes haçen los indios, y al pressente assi mismo los chripstianos, y aun algunos lo usan mas que el mahiz\"; PA269, the leaf and stem of the yuca, the planting in montones and the conuco, the moon rule, and the statement that the root with its juice kills man or animal \"sin remedio alguno\" while the yuca of Tierra-Firme does not kill; PA270, the animals that eat it unharmed, the size and colour of the roots, the scraping with shells, the grating stones, the çibucan of woven bark ten or twelve palmos long, the alçaprima with its torno and stone weights, the juice called \"pestífero veneno\" and poured away, and the burén set over a hollow fire; PA271, the turning with tablillas and the day or two in the sun, the half-finger thickness for common people and the wafer-thin xauxau for personas principales, the price of a carga at Santo Domingo (a ducado when dear, half a peso when cheap, sometimes a peso de oro of 450 maravedis, the carga being two arrobas or fifty pounds of sixteen ounces), the trade in it as \"buena granjería\", the three foods made from the boiled juice, the sentence that few Indians still knew those experiences \"porque los viejos son muertos\", and the keeping of the bread a year and more at sea; PA272, the mass suicides by draughts of the juice with Oviedo's own gloss on them, the six named varieties ypatex, diacanan, nubaga, tubaga, coro and tabacan, the note that the names differ by language elsewhere, and the wine made of caçabi in Tierra-Firme which he says he did not know when the first part was first printed. Pages PA264 and PA267 were also opened but nothing is claimed from them here." }, { "id": "ferguson-2019-cassava-global-diversity", "title": "A global overview of cassava genetic diversity", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6834265/", "publisher": "Morag E. Ferguson, Trushar Shah, Peter Kulakow and Hernan Ceballos, PLoS ONE 14(11):e0224763 (2019), doi 10.1371/journal.pone.0224763. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "Peer-reviewed genotyping study of 522 cassava accessions with 1,124 polymorphic SNPs, read as full text on 2026-08-14. Used here only for the framing facts its introduction and discussion state: domestication \"as much as 10,000 years ago, within the south-western rim of the Amazon basin (in modern day Brazil)\" from Manihot esculenta ssp. flabellifolia; the sixteenth-century carriage of the crop to west Africa by Portuguese traders \"initially to provide provisions for slave ships\"; calories \"for nearly half a billion people worldwide\"; and Africa's 61 per cent share of world production. The paper's own subject is breeding-pool structure (91 per cent of variation within rather than among populations), which is not claimed here. Reliability at 0.85 rather than 0.9 because the historical sentences are introductory framing in a genetics paper rather than its evidenced result." }, { "id": "kashala-abotnes-2018-konzo", "title": "Konzo: a distinct neurological disease associated with food (cassava) cyanogenic poisoning", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6626527/", "publisher": "Brain Research Bulletin 145:87-91 (2018), Elsevier", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "Esperance Kashala-Abotnes, Daniel Okitundu, Dieudonne Mumba, Michael J. Boivin, Thorkild Tylleskar and Desire Tshala-Katumbay; DOI 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2018.07.001. Read 2026-08-19 for what happens when the detoxification chain is cut short. Konzo is described as \"a permanent and clinically distinct upper motor neurone disease of abrupt onset\" with symmetrical, permanent and irreversible spastic paraparesis, arising from chronic dietary reliance on insufficiently processed cyanogenic cassava; the toxic metabolites named are cyanide, thiocyanate and cyanate. It primarily affects children above the age of three and women in the fertile age group in sub-Saharan Africa, with prevalence \"as high as 5% in certain rural areas\"; the 2005 \"wetting method\" of processing has been used successfully in the DRC to prevent outbreaks." }, { "id": "recopilacion-indias-1791-t1-libro-ii", "title": "Recopilación de leyes de los reynos de las Indias, quarta impresión — Tomo Primero, libro II títulos I, II and III (of the laws and provisions of the Indies; of the Council; of the President and councillors)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=P1xp68LXgw8C&pg=PA232", "publisher": "Madrid, por la Viuda de D. Joaquín Ibarra, impresora del Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias, 1791. Universidad Complutense de Madrid copy, full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-14", "notes": "The same volume registered as recopilacion-indias-1791-t1, opened at a different run of pages and registered under its own id so that each id records exactly which sheets were read. Pages read as page scans on 2026-08-14: PA218 (libro II título I - ley ij, that the laws of Castile be kept in what the laws of the Indies do not decide, \"conforme á la de Toro\"; ley iij on mining law; ley iiij, El Emperador D. Carlos y la Princesa Doña Juana, Valladolid 6 de Agosto de 1555, that the laws and good customs the Indians anciently had for their government and policía be kept and executed and are approved and confirmed, \"no perjudicando á lo que tienen hecho, ni á las buenas y justas costumbres y estatutos suyos\"; ley v, El Emperador D. Carlos en Toledo á 4 de Diciembre de 1528 y á 24 de Agosto de 1529, that laws in favour of the Indians be executed \"sin embargo de apelacion\", opening with the statement that the crown has ordered gathered into the Recopilación everything ordained in favour of the Indians); PA231 and PA232 (libro II título II - the 1636 competencia between the Councils of Castile and the Indies over recursos de fuerza, arising from the case of the oidor of Panama Diego de Orozco, and the resolution that the Council of the Indies knows of such causes in these kingdoms \"aunque sea en España\", with the order to revoke the contrary auto acordado printed in the Castilian compilation of 1640; ley v, ordenanzas 26, 28 and 41 del Consejo and Felipe IIII in the 5 de 1636, three hours every non-feast morning, two more on Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday afternoons, a quorum of three, and \"ningun Consejo se acabe hasta que todas estén leidas y respondidas\"; ley vj, ordenanza 3 and Felipe IIII in the 6 de 1636, the standing description and averiguación of all things of the state of the Indies and the book of it kept in the Council with annual novedades from viceroys, audiencias and ministers); PA233 (ley vij, ordenanza 4 and Felipe IIII in the 7 de 1636, the division of the state of the Indies for the temporal and the spiritual; ley viij, ordenanza 5 and the 8 de 1636, \"pospuesto todo otro respeto de aprovechamiento, é interes nuestro\" and \"los del dicho Consejo descarguen sus conciencias, pues con ellos descargamos la nuestra\"; ley viiij, ordenanza 2 and the 9 de 1636, the good treatment of the Indians, \"castigando con rigor á los que lo contrario hicieren\", and the clause that God put them under the crown's protection to take them out of the tyranny and servitude in which they anciently lived); PA234 (ley x, the division of business by weekday and the table of visitas and residencias; ley xj on what is seen by the whole Council before the President divides the rest by Salas; ley xij, ordenanza 32 and the 12 de 1636, on the information and parecer that must precede lawmaking, with the clause \"si en la dilacion de pedir informacion no hubiere algun inconveniente\"; ley xiij, ordenanza 14 and the 13 de 1636, that the laws made for the Indies be as conformable as possible to those of Castile, \"porque siendo de una Corona los Reynos de Castilla, y de las Indias\"); PA250 (the archive books recording papers held and papers out and who has them, ley lxx sending the less important papers to Simancas, ley lxxj that the laws of the título be read in the Council with all its ministers and officers present at least once at the beginning of each year, and leyes lxxij and lxxiij on the Junta de Guerra of the Indies meeting Tuesdays and Thursdays); PA266 (libro II título III - the law of Carlos V of 1542 with ordenanza 37 and the 83 de 1636, that no member of the Council hold Indians of repartimiento or encomienda \"en mucha, ni en poca cantidad\" nor his children marry those who hold them or who have suits pending; ley xvj, ordenanza 42 and the 84 de primero de Agosto de 1636, that the Council and its ministers receive no gifts, loans or presents from litigants and write no letters of recommendation to the Indies; ley xvij, decreto of 16 de Abril de 1627 and ordenanza 85 de 1636, the degrees of kinship that require a councillor to withdraw). Nothing is claimed here from any page not in this list." }, { "id": "viedma-descripcion-santa-cruz-1836", "title": "Descripcion geografica y estadistica de la provincia de Santa Cruz de la Sierra, por D. Francisco de Viedma, su gobernador intendente", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=WNDYGl-VQIgC&pg=PA136", "publisher": "Buenos Aires, Imprenta del Estado, 1836; the separately paginated extract of Pedro de Angelis, Coleccion de obras y documentos relativos a la historia antigua y moderna de las provincias del Rio de la Plata, tomo tercero; 224 pages; full-view digitisation, Google Books, volume id WNDYGl-VQIgC", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-14/15 through the anchored click3 page-image route at w=1800; the volume has a working search layer (SearchWithinVolume returns page ids with snippet text, though it indexes the spelling \"Moxos\" and not \"Mojos\"). Volume-level feed record: dc:creator \"Francisco de Viedma\", dc:date 1836, dc:publisher \"Imprenta del Estado\", dc:format 224 pages, dc:language es. The title page (PP7) is bound face-down in this copy; its text was read in mirror through the show-through on PP8 and agrees with the feed record. Tier and reliability are deliberately apart. These are printed sheets of the report of a serving Spanish intendant governor, written in the first person, citing the autos and cabildo papers he had before him, which is primary for what Viedma argued and for the documents he quotes; but he is a party to the dispute the text is about, he writes to have a rival's plan of government overturned and a new intendancy created with himself the obvious candidate to run it, and he defends yanaconaje and encomienda in the same pages in which he denounces the mission regime - hence 0.75. Two cautions for anyone reusing this entry. First, the volume prints the governor's surname both ways, \"D. Lazaro de Ribera\" at paragraph 490 and \"D. Lazaro de Rivera\" at paragraphs 498, 521 and 524, so either spelling is the book's. Second, the composition date of the report is nowhere on the pages opened; the latest document it cites is the fiscal's reply of 1 August 1789, so it is later than that, and no year is asserted from this source. Pages opened and read - PR1-PR4, Pedro de Angelis's editorial \"Discurso preliminar\", registered separately and cited separately; PA135-PA137, the close of the Cochabamba report, paragraph 490 announcing that the Moxos and Chiquitos section is directed \"a impugnar el nuevo plan de gobierno de D. Lazaro de Ribera, que tiene adoptado la Real Audiencia del distrito\", paragraph 491 on liberty and the \"cruel pupilage\" exceeding 120 years, paragraph 492 on continuous labour in textiles \"sin que sean duenos de lo mas minimo\", and paragraph 493 proposing a new intendancy; PA139, \"Parte primera\", paragraphs 494-495 with the foundation dates of both missions and the footnotes citing the cabildo letter of 2 June 1682, the acta capitular of 16 June 1681 and P. Montenegro's letter of 23 June 1691; PA140, paragraphs 496-499, the prosperity of the missions at the expulsion, the Herboso reglamento of 15 September 1762, the twenty-two years of government by curas and the fifteen Moxos pueblos reduced to eleven, and Ribera's demonstration before the Audiencia de Charcas; PA141-PA142, paragraphs 500-508, that the new plan \"nada varia al de los jesuitas\" but moves the temporalities from ecclesiastical to secular hands, the fiscal's argument that the Indians cannot govern themselves, and the opening of the historical review of the conquest; PA144, paragraphs 513-517, the origin of yanaconaje, the order of 1561 to the Audiencia de Charcas, Toledo's ordenanzas, and Viedma's own conclusion, footnoted to Solorzano's Politica Indiana lib. 2 cap. 4, that yanaconas are not slaves; PA145-PA148, paragraphs 518-525, the comparison of encomendados and yanaconas with Moxos and Chiquitos, the verbatim extract from Ribera's general report of 22 February 1788 with its addition of 15 April, the fiscal's paragraphs 46, 57 and 73 including the figure of 22,000 vassals, the produce owed to the administrators, the more than 500 men employed at the oar to Jores and Payla, and articles 36 to 43 of the Herboso reglamento; PA149-PA151, paragraphs 526-530, Viedma's admission of the curas' excesses and his comparison of them with the parish clergy of the Alto Peru, the contraband argument, and the proposal of an intendancy of Moxos, Chiquitos, Apolobamba and the partido of Santa Cruz. Page 138 is a blank verso and pages 152 onward, which begin the second part, were located but not read." }, { "id": "de-angelis-discurso-preliminar-santa-cruz-1836", "title": "Pedro de Angelis, Discurso preliminar a la Descripcion de Santa Cruz de la Sierra", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=WNDYGl-VQIgC&pg=PR1", "publisher": "Buenos Aires, Imprenta del Estado, 1836; the editor's unsigned preface, pages I-VIII, to the volume registered as viedma-descripcion-santa-cruz-1836", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-14 (PR1-PR4). Registered apart from Viedma's text because it is a different document by a different hand at a distance of some forty-five years: the editorial preface of Pedro de Angelis, a Neapolitan publicist working in Rosas's Buenos Aires, whose purpose is to argue that the interior provinces were held back first by \"los celos de la Corte de Madrid\" and then by \"las disenciones civiles\". Reliability 0.6 accordingly - it is an interested nineteenth-century editorial essay, and is cited in this corpus only for narrative facts about the missions that it states plainly and that nothing in the record contradicts: the foundation of the first Chiquitos reduction in 1690 under the title Nuestra Senora de la Representacion by the fathers Arce, Gonzalez, Zea and Centeno out of their college at Tarija, the Mamaluco slave raids that carried mission Indians to the markets of Brazil and finished several peoples of whom \"apenas se ha conservado el nombre\", the founding of the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra in 1557 by Nuflo de Chaves, and the division of the viceroyalty of Buenos Aires among eight intendants. Its interpretive sentences - that the climate leaves men in \"una inalterable inercia\", that the conquerors \"sacrificaron la raza indigena\" - are the author's own and are not bound to any claim." }, { "id": "prestes-carneiro-mojos-fishing-2019", "title": "Pre-Hispanic fishing practices in interfluvial Amazonia: Zooarchaeological evidence from managed landscapes on the Llanos de Mojos savanna", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6519797/", "publisher": "Gabriela Prestes-Carneiro, Philippe Bearez, Myrtle Pearl Shock, Heiko Prumers and Carla Jaimes Betancourt, PLoS ONE 14(5):e0214638 (2019), Public Library of Science, CC-BY 4.0; open-access copy read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Peer-reviewed zooarchaeological study of more than 17,000 fish remains from Loma Salvatierra, a monumental mound in the interfluvial Llanos de Mojos occupied between about 500 and 1400 AD. Read as full text on 2026-08-15. Cited in this corpus for one thing only, and the entry that cites it says so: that the plain the Spanish missions were planted on carried \"large and elaborate earthworks, constructed throughout the first millennium AD, attesting to the development of large and sedentary societies\", including mounds, causeways, canals and walled ponds. The paper is about the pre-Hispanic period and says nothing about the Jesuit missions, the expulsion of 1767 or the government of the missions afterwards, so no colonial claim is bound to it." }, { "id": "cisneros-sitio-naturaleza-1618", "title": "Sitio, naturaleza y propriedades de la ciudad de Mexico. Aguas y vientos a que esta suieta, y tiempos del año", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=KIN3nPFJji8C&pg=PA111", "publisher": "Mexico, 1618; the volume record gives the printer as 'en casa del bachiller Ioan Blanco de Alcaçar' and the extent as 358 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Diego Cisneros, physician, Complutense graduate incorporated in the Real Universidad de Mexico. Page images opened and read on 2026-08-15 - PP5 the engraved architectural title page, signed at the foot \"Samuel Estradan Antuerpiensis Sculp. Mexici\" and dedicated \"Al Exmo Señor D. Diego Fernandez de Cordoua Marques de Guadalcazar Virrey Gouernador y Capp.an General de las Prouincias de Nueua España y Presidente de la Real Chancilleria de Mexico\"; PA111 (the Hippocratic marshland comparison and the marginal gloss on the wind called Cenchrona); PA112-IA1, PA112-IA2 and PA112-IA3 (chapter 17, \"Los Indios de Mexico no son flematicos\", the refutation of Enrico Martinez's planetary attribution, the argument from the arts they practise, the conclusion \"La templança de los indios de Mexico es sanguinea\", and the division of the Spaniards of the city into those born there, \"los que vulgarmente se llaman criollos\", and those who come from Spain); PA125 (the cocoliztli passage). The 1618 date and the printer's name come from the Google Books volume record, not from the engraved title page, whose year sits inside the cartouche and was not read with confidence; the tabla at RA1-PA5 to RA1-PA9 was consulted through the search layer only." }, { "id": "instrucciones-vireyes-nueva-espana-1867-letran", "title": "Instrucciones que los vireyes de Nueva España dejaron á sus sucesores — the Relacion, apuntamientos y avisos given to D. Luis de Velasco, and the Instruccion general on the colegio de San Juan de Letran", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5vWPUgO5TQC&pg=PA228", "publisher": "México, Imprenta Imperial, 1867; 332 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "A nineteenth-century printing of viceregal papers, not the manuscripts themselves. Page images opened and read on 2026-08-15. PA227 carries the head of the document - \"RELACION, APUNTAMIENTOS Y AVISOS QUE POR MANDADO DE S. M. DÍ AL SR. D. LUIS DE VELASCO, VISOREY, Y GOBERNADOR Y CAPITAN GENERAL DESTA NUEVA ESPAÑA\" - with the editor's note that it is found \"en un tomo en folio de la Biblioteca Nacional, forrado de badana encarnada, señalado J. 89\", that in another hand it reads \"Es escrito por D. Antonio de Mendoza, virey de Nueva España\", and that a much more modern hand adds in the margin \"Letra del marqués de Mondexar\". PA228-PA229 carry items 12 to 15 under the running head \"DE D. ANTONIO DE MENDOZA A D. LUIS DE VELASCO\" (the colegio for mestizo boys, the house for mestiza girls, the college of Tlatelolco, and the viceroy's practice of hearing Indians on Mondays and Thursdays through the naguatatos of the audiencia). PA64, under the running head \"INSTRUCCION GENERAL QUE TRAJO DE LA CORTE\", names \"el colegio de niños pobres mestizos de México, que se denomina de San Juan de Letran\" and cites the Recopilación for its accounts. A parallel scheduled run has registered the same digitised volume on an open branch under a different id for a different section of it (PA44-PA48, the first conde de Revillagigedo); this entry covers only the pages listed here." }, { "id": "ordenanza-quarteles-queretaro-1796", "title": "Ordenanza que para la division de la M. Noble y Leal Ciudad de Santiago de Queretaro en quarteles menores, creacion de alcaldes de ellos, y reglas para su gobierno ... ha extendido el Corregidor de Letras Lic. D. Joseph Ignacio Ruiz Calado", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=dQyiMUyJpTwC", "publisher": "En Mexico, por Don Mariano de Zuniga y Ontiveros, calle del Espiritu Santo, 1796. Digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Twenty-four page official printing of the ordinance dividing Queretaro into wards, thirty-two articles, dated at the end \"Queretaro Marzo 5 de 1796\" over the name of the corregidor de letras Joseph Ignacio Ruiz Calado. Page images read 2026-08-15 through the Google Books signed page-scan chain. PP3 title page (real cedula of 17 June 1794 as the authority, approval by superior decree of 4 June 1796, the Zuniga y Ontiveros imprint); PA1-PA2 arts. 1-5 (three quarteles mayores under the alcalde ordinario de primera eleccion, the corregidor and the alcalde ordinario de segunda eleccion, each divided into three menores under alcaldes de barrio; cumulative jurisdiction; the office a carga concejil under penalty of 100 pesos); PA3-PA4 arts. 6-9 (uniform, black staff, passive fuero; biennial terms, December nominations to the viceroy, possession before 1 January in a public place with no banquet under penalty of 200 pesos; the city having only three escribanos); PA5-PA6 arts. 10-12 (criminal jurisdiction limited to the sumaria, arrest without power of release, two alguaciles each, weekly and Easter jail visits, night rounds against music, velorios, drunkenness, gaming, vinaterias, pulquerias, mesones, trucos, tepacherias, unpermitted arms and the \"vagos o mal entretenidos\"); PA7-PA8 arts. 13-18 (verbal conciliation of light quarrels; the prohibition of general pesquisas and of meddling in the interior and economic government of houses; contraband and the privileged fuero; mutual aid including the Real Tribunal de la Acordada; tribute collection and extortions by collectors); PA9-PA10 arts. 19-23 (the folio book of streets and numbered houses, the exact padron of every family without reserve of sex or age, innkeepers' nightly lists, the ten-peso fine for moving house unnotified, the servant's paper and the alcalde's power to stop a servant being \"vejado indebidamente\", and the opening of the medical-relief article); PA11-PA12 arts. 23-27 (hospital admission for the destitute sick and compulsion of physicians and apothecaries; school and amiga for boys and girls and first-letters schools in the religious houses \"a imitacion de lo que ya se practico en la Capital Mexico\"; orphans, poor maidens and widows, women of ill life, industry and the supply of materials for spinning and weaving); PA13-PA14 arts. 28-32 (beggars and the absence of a hospice, paving, sweeping, drains and acequia covers with the admission that the Ayuntamiento's regidores are too few for a division into quarters, monthly written reports, and the junta to find arbitrios for street lighting within two months). PT1, the \"Explicacion del Plano de Queretaro\", carries the Resumen General used for the city's statistics and was re-read at higher resolution to verify the figures." }, { "id": "actas-juntas-generales-sociedad-economica-habana-1834", "title": "Acta de las juntas generales de la Real Sociedad Economica de Amigos del Pais [de la Habana], celebradas en diciembre de 1833", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=FMZQBmTgKDMC", "publisher": "Habana, Imprenta del Gobierno y Capitania General por S.M., 1834. Digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "126-page printing of the annual proceedings of the Havana economic society, including the secretary's report, the reports of its sections and deputations and its statements of funds. Page images read 2026-08-15 through the Google Books signed page-scan chain. PA22 (the section of Education, Memorias de la Sociedad begun January 1817 and suspended at the end of 1823 for want of funds; the December 1831 state of free schools - 510 taught free by convents and private masters in the casco of Havana, 120 in the Real Casa de Beneficencia, 251 in five free schools of Jesus Maria, Guadalupe and San Nicolas, 221 in Regla, 3,680 places in all); PA23 (6,080 children instructed; 20,837 white children of both sexes in the jurisdiction; 16,837 without destination; \"ocho mil ninos solamente quedan sin ensenanza\"; six institutes of 150 at 3,000 pesos = 18,000, plus 2,000 for linear drawing and three workshops and 4,600 spent = 24,600 pesos a year); PA27 (the anatomical museum and chair of surgery and obstetrics in the military hospital of San Ambrosio, sustained by the society, its regent Francisco Alonso y Fernandez teaching gratis; the Biblioteca \"cuyo estado de atraso se califica en las actas publicas\"; the class of midwives at San Francisco de Paula under Domingo Rosainz with its reglamento printed in the Diario of 12 June 1831; the junta on railways of 8 August 1830); PA28 (the papers remitted to the ministry - reflections on lightning rods published 1812, the notice of the wax branch of 1815, Jose Fernandez de Madrid's memoir on tobacco answering a subject proposed in 1817, the posthumous eulogy of Juan Manuel O'Farrill, founder and first secretary, and the \"Consejos dirigidos a los maestros de primeras letras\" then circulated to every such teacher in the island - and the list of deputations \"con especialidad a la educacion publica\": Puerto Principe 1813, Trinidad in the same year and re-established 6 May 1827, Matanzas 30 May 1827, Santa Clara 20 November 1829, Santiago by agreement of 1 March of the preceding year); PA38 (the income of about 15,230 pesos itemised - 200 monthly from the cajas matrices for the botanical garden, 166 pesos 5 reales from the press, 390 from the Real Aduana, 330 from the Real Junta de Fomento, members' dues - and the annual deficit of nearly 2,000 pesos); PA39 (the petition to the crown listing the society's charges: primary education, drawing, literature, history, a public library, agriculture, a botanical garden, industry and commerce, anatomy, vaccination, a class of obstetrics; the three per cent asked for; the botanical garden placed under the Real Hacienda); PA63 (the cholera epidemic discussed as a destruction of capital employed in the purchase of the enslaved, with the crowding, want of cleanliness, bad food and harsh labour of the estates named as its causes); PA106 (the deputation's public library founded in August 1831 from members' gifts and the parent society's duplicates, open three days a week; the 1832 topographic plan; the commission on the island's history; the 1830 statistics of San Fernando de Nuevitas; the road to Nuevitas; the bridge over the Tinima at the paso de Carrasco by voluntary subscription); PA103 (the same report signed \"Puerto-Principe 20 de Noviembre de 1833\", the case of meteorological instruments received from Paris through Ramon de la Sagra, the treasurer Ignacio de Torres supplying the deputation's commitments out of his own pocket, and the closing judgement \"si se atiende a nuestros deseos, nada hemos hecho\"). Registered primary for the society's own reports and figures and not for the accuracy of the island statistics it borrows; reliability is set at 0.85 rather than 0.9 because the volume is an interested body reporting on itself." }, { "id": "galvan-ordenanzas-de-tierras-y-aguas-1868", "title": "Ordenanzas de tierras y aguas, o sea formulario geometrico-judicial para la designacion, establecimiento, mensura, amojonamiento y deslinde de las poblaciones y todas suertes de tierras, sitios, caballerias y criaderos de ganados mayores y menores, y mercedes de agua", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=87AYAAAAYAAJ", "publisher": "Compiled and published by Mariano Galvan Rivera. Quinta edicion, corregida y aumentada. Paris, Libreria de Rosa y Bouret, 1868. 316 pages. Digitised by Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Nineteenth-century Mexican formulary of land and water measurement, compiling colonial dispositions the title page describes as \"vigentes hasta el dia en la Republica Mexicana\" and offering itself \"a beneficio y obsequio de los pobladores, ganaderos, labradores, duenos, arrendatarios y administradores de haciendas\". Page images read 2026-08-15 through the Google Books signed page-scan chain. PP7 title page and imprint; PA163 the caballeria de tierra as a right-angled parallelogram of 1,104 by 552 varas, 609,408 square varas, with the figure giving the equivalents in cordeles of 50 varas; PA190 ordinances 34, 35 and 36 of 1573 as inserted in ley 1, tit. V, lib. 4 of the Recopilacion (the healthiness tests for a town site and \"muchas y buenas aguas para beber y regar\") and Charles V's cedula of 26 June 1523 on assigning lands and solares for propios; PA196 the labradores' representation to the audiencia invoking the ordinance of the marques de Falces of 26 May 1567 for the 500 varas, objecting to the extra hundred varas of the cedula of 4 June 1687 measured from the last house, and asking that the count run from the centre of the church and apply only to cabeceras; PA197 the royal cedula of Madrid, 12 July 1695, ordering the 1687 cedula executed but the six hundred varas and the eleven hundred varas counted \"desde la iglesia de ellos, y no desde la ultima casa\", with indemnity at the least prejudicial point and, failing other land, out of the king's own, and the charge to attend \"muy especialmente al bien y provecho de los indios\"; PA252 chapter XXIII on the measures and legal distribution of waters, the aperture principle and the buey de agua of one square vara or 2,304 square dedos; PA253 the surco of 48 square dedos, the naranja of 16, the real de agua of 2 and the paja of one ninth of a square dedo, with the nesting ratios 48 surcos to the buey, 3 naranjas to the surco, 8 reales to the naranja and 18 pajas to the real. Registered secondary rather than primary because the sixteenth and seventeenth-century dispositions are read here in an 1868 compiler's transcription and not in their own printings; the definitions, figures and arithmetic of the formulary itself are first-hand." }, { "id": "autoridades-1734-t4", "title": "Diccionario de la lengua castellana, en que se explica el verdadero sentido de las voces ... compuesto por la Real Academia Española - Tomo Quarto, que contiene las letras G. H. I. J. K. L. M. N.", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=QYdzVfbK5sAC&pg=PA193", "publisher": "En Madrid: En la Imprenta de la Real Académia Españóla, por los Herederos de Francisco del Hierro, 1734. Read as page scans in the Google Books digitisation of a copy shelfmarked 265.596-D.Fid-4", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The fourth volume of the first edition of the dictionary later known as the Diccionario de Autoridades. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-15 - PP7, the title page, printed in red and black within a typographic border, \"DICCIONARIO DE LA LENGUA CASTELLANA ... DEDICADO AL REY NUESTRO SEÑOR DON PHELIPE V. (QUE DIOS GUARDE) A CUYAS REALES EXPENSAS SE HACE esta obra. COMPUESTO POR LA REAL ACADEMIA ESPAÑOLA. TOMO QUARTO. QUE CONTIENE LAS LETRAS G.H.I.J.K.L.M.N. CON PRIVILEGIO\"; and folio 193, signature Bb, carrying the entries from HUNDIR to HURON, among them HURACAN. Registered primary because a dictionary is a first-hand witness to what its own compilers printed; reliability below the tier because the volume is cited here for a lexical and etymological judgement that the Academy made without naming its American sources, and the object that uses it says so. The neighbouring leaves PP4-PP6 in this copy are a flyleaf and two blanks, not the title page." }, { "id": "constituciones-sinodales-guamanga-1677", "title": "Constituciones synodales de el Obispado de la ciudad de Guamanga, celebradas en Concilio Diocesano por el Ilustrísimo y Reverendísimo señor D. D. Christoval de Castilla y Zamora, en el mes de junio de 1672", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=IjYZOf94hBMC&pg=PP1", "publisher": "Lima, por Gerónimo de Contreras, 1677. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The printed constitutions of the diocesan synod held at Huamanga (Peru) in June 1672 and printed at Lima five years later. Pages opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-15. PP1, the title page — \"CONSTITVCIONES SYNODALES DE EL OBISPADO DE LA CIVDAD DE GVAMANGA, CELEBRADAS EN CONCILIO DIOCESANO POR EL ILVST.mo Y R.mo SEÑOR D. D. CHRISTOVAL DE CASTILLA Y ZAMORA. EN EL MES DE IVNIO DE 1672. Cō licencia. En Lima, Por Geronimo de Contreras 1677\", with the bishop's arms. PP3, the fiscal's parecer, signed \"Lic. Don Iuan de Peñalosa\", Lima 25 February 1676, certifying that \"no ha quedado en su contexto cosa que se oponga al Real Patronazgo, ni jurisdicion Real\" and that the author has \"atendido a la concordia de lo mas vtil, y al decoro de ambas jurisdiciones, sin macillar ninguna\", the text being \"esmaltada con la concordancia de capitulos del Derecho Canonico, Concilios Tridentino, y Limense, y cedulas Reales\". PA21, the opening of cap. II, headed \"Paraque se enseñe a los Indios la Doctrina en lengua Española\", which cites Acosta for \"mas de setecientas Lenguas diferentes\" in Peru and records that the Inca \"su Rey ordenase a estas gentes que todas aprendiesen la lengua Quichua, que llaman la general, aunque en sus Prouincias vsauan la que tenian especial\", with a marginal citation to a cédula of 2 March 1634. PA22, the continuation, which prints the position it rejects — \"Aunque digan Acosta y Garcilaso que no se puede quitar su lengua a los Indios, y que es mas conforme a raçon que los Españoles la aprendan\" — and then quotes the royal cédula of Ventosilla, 25 July 1605, that the mysteries of the faith cannot be applied in the best and most perfect Indian language \"sino con grandes absurdos e imperfecciones\", that the founded chairs are \"no es remedio bastante por ser tanta la variedad de las lenguas\", and orders masters put in place \"y que a los Indios sea de menos molestia, y sin costa suya … para los que voluntariamente quisieren aprender la lengua Castellana\". PA84, cap. on fasting, leyes 2 to 6, reserving the Indians from fasting on days of precept except the Fridays of Lent, Holy Saturday and Christmas Eve by bull of Paul III and the Council of Lima, and reciting the perpetual privilege of Pius IV. PA96, leyes 20 to 22 on burials, the order of the funeral procession (the cofradías following the parish and the religious houses), the ban on night burials and night tolling without licence, with marginal citations to the \"Sinoda. Lim. del año de 1636 tit. de sepult. c. 1 y en las del año de 1613\" and to Trent sess. 25 c. 13. PA103, the cofradía accounting rules — the balance to pass to the incoming mayordomo \"conque se escusaran los fraudes\"; the curas bound to take the accounts yearly under penalty of the damages of each cofradía \"y de diez pesos por la que dexaren sin reciuir las dichas quentas en cada vn año\", the four-monthly obligation being relaxed to annual; §2, \"porque algunos mayordomos han fingido que se les han quemado sus casas, y en ellas los libros de las Cofradias, porque no se tenga noticia de los bienes de ellas\", ordering the curas to keep the books themselves and leave the mayordomos only a day-book; §3, on cofradías found without foundation and on those \"que llaman de deuocion, que en todo tiempo no han tenido fundacion\". PA104, §5 on the visitation of cofradías under the Council of Lima and the two keys to the sacrament cofradía's chest, one held by the cura and one by the mayordomo; §6, \"porque es tan crecido el numero de las Cofradias, y de los limosneros de ellas\", limiting to three per church or monastery those that may beg publicly in the streets; §7, forbidding the curas to ask or compel the cofrades or mayordomos to give them presents \"de vino, aues, carneros, ni otros generos, pena de boluerlos con el quatro tanto\"; §8, on the prohibition of curas naming the alférez from one year to the next at cofradía festivities. RA2-PA2 (printed page 142), the close of §28 requiring that suits be ended briefly and that litigants give the officials no \"presentes, ni regalos … ni mas derechos que los que estan señalados por el arancel\"; §29 reserving matrimonial, decimal, beneficial, sorcery and usury causes from the particular vicars; §31 directing the vicars that there be no mestizos, negros or mulatos in their districts unless married to Indian women of the same doctrina or holding real property in it. RA3-PP52, a leaf of the alphabetical index, which carries the entries \"Alferazgos de Cofradias prohibidos c. 27. n. 8\", \"Arancel ha de estar fixo en parte publica c. 37. n. 15\" and \"Auxilio Real en causas de idolatria cap. 6. n. 8\"." }, { "id": "constituciones-sinodales-lima-1864", "title": "Constituciones sinodales del Arzobispado de Lima — edición hecha conforme a la de 1754", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=1EkJnuhL040C&pg=PA19", "publisher": "Lima, imprenta de Huerta, 1864, 412 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The synodal code of the archdiocese of Lima, at one remove: what is printed is the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century text as re-set in 1864 from the 1754 impression, which is why reliability sits below the tier. Pages opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-15. PP7, the half-title \"CONSTITUCIONES SINODALES\". PA19 (Libro I, \"De constitutionibus\"), the close of cap. II ordering that in the pueblos de indios the edict be published \"en su lengua en vn dia de fiesta, cuando estén juntos en la Iglesia, advirtiendoles de las cosas, que á ellos les tocan\"; cap. III, headed \"Que se procure, que los Indios hablen en la lengua general, y en ella se les administren los Santos Sacramentos, y no en la materna\", reasoning that \"conviene que el lenguaje sea vniforme entre los Indios, para que assi entiendan la predicacion\" and exhorting the corregidores and secular ministers to enforce it; cap. IIII, \"Que no se funden Cofradias sin licencia del Ordinario, y las de los Indios no se hagan fuera de su Parrochia, y no se gaste nada sin licencia del Provissor, ó Vicario, y á su falta del Cura\", forbidding foundation or use of statutes without the ordinary's approval and forbidding mayordomos to dispose of any sum beyond ordinary expenditure without licence. PA66 (Libro I, tít. VII), §27 on the procuración of the visitation, the visitor's option to take it in money or victuals, and the notary to be paid \"conforme al Arancel General, que tiene la Provincia\", closing with the subscriptions \"Fr. Archiepiscopus de los Reyes. — Fr. Antonius Episcopus Imperialis. — Fr. Episcopus Cuzquensis\". PA73 (\"De officio visitatoris\"), the close of cap. XI binding those who take what they should not \"á restituir, lo que reciben con el doblo dentro de vn mes\", on pain of suspension from every office and benefice and of irregularity if they celebrate while suspended, absolution reserved to the Pope; and cap. XII entire, headed \"Que los Visitadores, ni sus Notarios no lleven derechos por las informaciones secretas, ni autos, ni decretos de oficio, y que los que llevaren por las causas de culpas, no los partan entre si por concierto, y que de los Indios Caziques, Governadores, ó Curacas se cobren por el arancel de Castilla\", whose body states that fees are to be charged after definitive sentence \"salvo en cuanto á los Indios, porque no se les ha de llevar cosa alguna\", the caciques, gobernadores and curacas alone being chargeable and only at the Castilian arancel." }, { "id": "advertencia-editores-sinodales-lima-1864", "title": "Advertencia de los editores, prefixed to the 1864 Lima edition of the Constituciones sinodales del Arzobispado de Lima", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=1EkJnuhL040C&pg=PP11", "publisher": "Lima, imprenta de Huerta, 1864. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Registered separately from the constitutions themselves so that claims resting on the nineteenth-century editors do not borrow the tier of the seventeenth-century text. Page PP11 read as a page scan on 2026-08-15. The notice states that the constitutions were \"dictadas por el celo pastoral del Ilustrísimo Señor Lobo Guerrero, en el Sínodo Diocesano de 1613, que, veinte y cuatro años mas tarde, en el de 1636, complementó el Ilustrísimo Señor Arias de Ugarte\"; that they are \"un código completo de sabias y prolijas disposiciones para el buen régimen de la Iglesia de Lima, la propagacion y pureza de la Religion Católica y la civilizacion del pueblo, en especial de la numerosa y atrasada clase indígena\"; that they retain their necessity \"á pesar de tres siglos de distancia\"; that Arias de Ugarte wrote of them that \"si se guardassen y cumpliessen no havia necessidad, de mas Constituciones\"; and that because later prelates were not permitted to renew or modify them they \"están aun en vigor y rigen en la circunscripcion eclesiástica de Lima y de las nuevas Diócesis que de ella se han formado\". The phrase \"atrasada clase indígena\" is the 1864 editors' own and is quoted in this corpus as their judgement, not the synod's." }, { "id": "prontuario-cedulas-guatemala-1857", "title": "Prontuario de todas las reales cédulas, cartas acordadas y órdenes comunicadas a la Audiencia del antiguo reino de Guatemala, desde el año de 1600 hasta 1818", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=5lstAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA57", "publisher": "Guatemala, imprenta de Luna, 1857, 458 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "A nineteenth-century digest of the royal orders received by the Audiencia of Guatemala between 1600 and 1818, arranged by subject. It summarises rather than transcribes, which is why it is registered secondary: the cédulas reported through it are reported at one remove, and claims that rest on it say so. Pages opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-15. PA57, the cofradía entries — the cédula of 1 June 1672 prohibiting the election of alféreces in the cofradías de indios \"por ningun pretesto\", after convites held in their houses \"y varios excesos de que resultaban muchos desórdenes\", the justices to punish those who accept such appointments and to answer for the omission in their residencias, \"debiendo ser esta una de las preguntas del interrogatorio\"; the cédula of 31 January 1740 prohibiting the continuation of cofradías not founded with royal licence or whose statutes the Council has not approved, and declaring the Audiencia competent to prevent the erection of \"cofradias y guachivales\" without royal faculty; the real orden of 22 October 1771 and cédula of 24 April 1775 calling for a return of the cofradías and hermandades of the archbishopric of Guatemala and its three suffragans; and the cédula of 15 December 1787, which records the archbishop of Guatemala's representation that there existed \"mil novecientas ochenta y dos cofradias, y ciento cincuenta y tres hermandades\" distributed across the 419 churches of the archbishopric, five to each, the number being held excessive \"aunque lo contrario pareciese á dicho Arzobispo\". PA58, the continuation — the carta acordada of 15 April 1803 to the President of Guatemala, reporting that cofradías of the Carmen had been erected in New Spain on a patent of the Carmelite general of 15 April 1689 that had never passed the Council, and that \"todas las cofradias del reino de Guatemala carecian del requisito de estarlo con las convenientes licencias\", with the Council ordering the unpassed patents recalled; and the circular of 15 October 1805 abolishing the requirement that mayordomos post bonds, directing that the brothers elect as mayordomos those who \"sirvan sin otro interes que el contribuir por su parte al objeto de su instituto\", that a cofrade named secretary suffices to authorise elections and acts and shall serve \"sin derechos ni emolumentos\", that a cofradía may not move to another temple without the vice-patrons' consent nor alter its constitutions without royal licence, and that its goods \"no se entiendan espiritualizados en tiempo alguno\"." }, { "id": "gunn-2011-coconut-independent-origins", "title": "Independent origins of cultivated coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) in the old world tropics", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3120816/", "publisher": "Bee F. Gunn, Luc Baudouin and Kenneth M. Olsen, PLoS ONE 6(6):e21143, 22 June 2011, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021143; open access", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Microsatellite survey of 1,322 coconut accessions at ten loci. Full text read 2026-08-15. Used here for the two-basin population structure (Pacific vs Indo-Atlantic) and its geographical span; for the statement that the Pacific coast of Mexico \"was also populated largely by Philippine coconuts - but in post-colonial times and through multiple introductions\" and that its composition \"more closely reflects the genetic heterogeneity of the Philippines\"; for the hedge that \"the small contribution of the 'South Pacific' component in Mexico may reflect early Spanish importations from the Solomon Islands\"; for the Panama Tall carrying a 'Panama' component absent elsewhere except at low frequency in the Philippines, read as a founder event; and for European introductions into the Caribbean and Atlantic basins appearing \"to be of Indian origin\", with the Portuguese plantations in West Africa, Brazil and the Caribbean after 1498. The paper's own subject is global domestication structure, not American colonial history, so the American passages are its incidental application of the structure rather than its argued core, and confidence on the claims drawn from them is set accordingly." }, { "id": "baudouin-2014-coconut-panama", "title": "The presence of coconut in southern Panama in pre-Columbian times: clearing up the confusion", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3864718/", "publisher": "Luc Baudouin, Bee F. Gunn and Kenneth M. Olsen, Annals of Botany 113(1):1-5, published online 13 November 2013, doi:10.1093/aob/mct244", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Full text read 2026-08-15. An argumentative review answering Harries (2012) and Clement et al. (2013), written by two of the three authors of the 2011 genetic study it defends - an interested party, which is why reliability is set below the tier and why the claims drawn from it carry the dispute on their face. Used for Oviedo's use of fruit and seed size as a classification criterion across the palms of Book 9 chapter 4, the \"big coco\" of the province of the cacique Chiman against the walnut- and olive-sized cocos; for the identification of the drawing printed as Figure 15 of Plate 3 in Amador de los Rios (1851) as a marginal Bactris drawing on folio 53v of ms. HM177, Huntington Library, misplaced by the editor and altered by his engraver; for Pedro Martir de Angleria's tidal-dispersal passage near Nata and its identification with the Aguadulce salt flats; for the founding effective population of two to five palms and the allele-containment argument fixing the direction of migration from the Philippines; and for the concessions the authors make while defending Oviedo - approximate dimensions, written in Spain, possibly betrayed by memory - and their statement that linguistic, archaeological and ethnobotanical evidence of pre-contact coconut use in America is absent." }, { "id": "loiola-2016-tall-coconut-brazil", "title": "Genetic Relationships among Tall Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera L.) Accessions of the International Coconut Genebank for Latin America and the Caribbean (ICG-LAC), Evaluated Using Microsatellite Markers (SSRs)", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4790901/", "publisher": "Carina Mendes Loiola and others, PLoS ONE 11(3):e0151309, 14 March 2016, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0151309; open access", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Full text read 2026-08-15. Cited here as an unrelated third party to the Panamanian dispute: it restates the Pacific / Indo-Atlantic division and its geography, groups the two Brazilian tall accessions with the West African Tall, gives the 1553 Bahia planting with Mozambique as presumed source and Cape Verde as route, and states plainly that \"there is no consensus about the period when coconuts were introduced in the Pacific Coast of Latin America\", citing Clement et al. (2013) and Baudouin et al. (2014) on opposite sides. Its own object is a breeding-oriented diversity study of nine accessions in Brazil, so it is used for the framing statements and not for any American colonial chronology of its own." }, { "id": "aguirre-2020-chusca-lojana-goat", "title": "Genetic Characterization of the \"Chusca Lojana\", a Creole Goat Reared in Ecuador, and Its Relationship with Other Goat Breeds", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7341184/", "publisher": "Lenin Aguirre-Riofrio and others (BioGoat Consortium; senior author Juan Vicente Delgado-Bermejo), Animals (Basel) 10(6):1026, 12 June 2020, doi:10.3390/ani10061026; open access", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Full text read 2026-08-15. 145 Chusca Lojana animals at 38 FAO-ISAG microsatellites against 43 goat populations of Spain, the American Creoles, Europe and Africa. Used for the statement that the breed \"belongs to the genetic group of the American Creoles, descendants of the Iberian populations imported by the Spanish colonizers five centuries ago\"; for the within-breed figures (MNA 8, Ae 4.3, He 0.71, Ho 0.63, PIC 0.67, F(IS) 0.11) and the across-population figures (F(IS) 0.087, F(IT) 0.176, F(ST) 0.098); for the STRUCTURE results at K = 2, 5 and 18, where the European and most Creole breeds cluster together against the African and Canary Islands breeds; for the absence of detected introgression from Saanen, Alpina, Anglo-Nubian, African or Spanish breeds and the F(ST) of 0.0073 between the four local biotypes; and for the comparison of its allele numbers with the Spanish goat of the USA and with the Creole goats of seven other Latin American countries. The paper is a conservation-genetics characterisation, not a historical study, and its colonial framing is background rather than result." }, { "id": "corredor-2025-peruvian-creole-goats", "title": "Genomic Characterization of Peruvian Creole Goats: Insights into Population Structure and Runs of Homozygosity", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12427317/", "publisher": "Flor-Anita Corredor and others, Animals (Basel) 15(17):2577, 2 September 2025, doi:10.3390/ani15172577; open access", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Full text read 2026-08-15. First genome-wide assessment of Peruvian Creole goats: 106 newly sampled animals from Ancash, Ica and Lima merged with a public dataset covering Lambayeque, Tumbes and Piura, giving 255 individuals and 48,932 SNPs for most analyses (49,913 for the ROH work). Used for the population structure with Ica separated and the northern populations overlapping, the predominantly short runs of homozygosity and the shared regions on chromosome 6, the generally low inbreeding coefficients with Ancash highest, the declining effective population sizes with Piura largest recently, and the statement that these goats \"are not officially recognized as a formal breed in Peru\". Its sentence attributing the founding stock to the white Celtiberian and the Castilian of Extremadura, named by chroniclers as \"Granada\", \"Murcia\" and \"Malaga\" types, is a citation to earlier literature in its introduction and not a finding of this paper; the claim built on it is held at low confidence for that reason." }, { "id": "sarmiento-viage-estrecho-1768-diario", "title": "Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, Viage al Estrecho de Magallanes en los anos de 1579 y 1580, y noticia de la expedicion que despues hizo para poblarle (Madrid, 1768) - the journal text", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=6LYGAAAAQAAJ", "publisher": "Imprenta Real de la Gazeta, Madrid, 1768. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id 6LYGAAAAQAAJ, 540 pages, 14.0 x 23.0 cm)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-15 through the Google Books page-image chain. This id covers only the journal of the 1579-80 voyage as printed in this volume - Sarmiento's own dated entries and the documents transcribed inside them - and is tiered primary as a printed transmission of a sixteenth-century text. Reliability 0.75 rather than higher because the pages opened contain no statement by the eighteenth-century editor of how faithfully the printing follows the manuscript in the royal library, and no manuscript was seen; a run that can reach a digitised manuscript should re-tier accordingly. Pages opened and read - the title page, giving the imprint \"EN MADRID En la Imprenta Real de la Gazeta. Ano de 1768\"; and page 230, the entry recording Mass said ashore, the forge set up ashore and the ironwork made for knees and keys, the taking of possession at the Rio de San Juan with a great stone cairn and a tall cross visible from the whole channel of the Strait, and the head of the document then printed in full, \"POSESION DEL RIO DE SAN-JUAN Y del ESTRECHO DE LA MADRE-DE-DIOS\", opening \"En el Nombre de la Sanctisima Trenidad\". The volume's charts, index and footnotes were not used." }, { "id": "sarmiento-viage-estrecho-1768-testimonios", "title": "Testimonios - the dossier of extracts from other authors printed in the preliminary matter of Viage al Estrecho de Magallanes (Madrid, 1768)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=6LYGAAAAQAAJ", "publisher": "Imprenta Real de la Gazeta, Madrid, 1768. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id 6LYGAAAAQAAJ)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-15. Registered separately from the journal because it is a different kind of text - an eighteenth-century compiler's selection of passages from other men's printed books, each under a heading naming its author and place, none of them an eyewitness of what they report. Tiered secondary and reliability 0.7 for that reason; the value of the section is that the compiler included witnesses hostile to Spain. Pages opened and read - lxxii, extracts from Alonso de Ovalle, Historica Relacion del Reyno de Chile lib. VI cap. I (the viceroy Toledo sending Sarmiento with two ships from Callao on 11 October 1579 after Drake; the return armada of twenty-three ships and two thousand men under Diego Flores de Valdes; the founding of the city of San Felipe; and its failure for want of communication with the other settlements of Chile and the insufferable colds), and the opening of the extract from Cristobal Suarez de Figueroa, Hechos de Don Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza lib. V pag. 210; lxxiii, the continuation of that extract (Anton Paulo Corso as piloto general, the departure of Sunday 11 October, the sounding line, astrolabes and charts never let go of, the \"perfectas demarcaciones\", the order to return to Spain) followed by the extract from the dedication of Francisco de Seixas y Lovera, Descripcion Geografica y Derrotero de la Region Austral Magallanica, asking that the Strait be peopled again with Spaniards and defended with a squadron of warships as begun in 1581 by Sarmiento; and lxxvi, the extract from Olivier van Noort's relation (the city of San Felipe called City of Famine by Thomas Cavendish, at 53 degrees 18 minutes; four bastions with a cannon in each, found buried and taken by Cavendish in 1587; the church; the half-gallows with a hanged man; the garrison of four hundred to bar the passage without licence; three years in which nothing sown throve; and the greater part perishing of hunger, the English finding many corpses clothed and stretched about the houses). The two explanations of the colony's failure that this section prints do not agree with each other, and the objects that use it say so rather than choosing between them." }, { "id": "cordoba-relacion-ultimo-viage-estrecho-1788", "title": "Relacion del ultimo viage al Estrecho de Magallanes de la fragata de S. M. Santa Maria de la Cabeza en los anos de 1785 y 1786 (Madrid, 1788) - the relation of the voyage", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=SI5gAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "Por la Viuda de Ibarra, Hijos y Compania, Madrid, 1788. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id SI5gAAAAcAAJ, 416 pages)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-15. This id covers the first part only, the relation of the 1785-86 voyage, which the book states is owed almost entirely to notices extracted from the officers' own diaries and which was published by royal order two years after the frigate's return - hence primary, at reliability 0.85. Pages opened and read - 1, the King's resolution to arm a frigate to reconnoitre and draw the plan of the Strait, the choice of the Santa Maria de la Cabeza and the decision that she should not be copper-sheathed, the entrusting of the command to the Capitan de Navio D. Antonio de Cordoba with liberty to choose his people, and the request to Brigadier Vicente Tofino at Cadiz for two of the officers then two years into forming the Hydrographic Atlas of the Coasts of Spain; 3, the Estado de salida naming Cordoba, Fernando Miera, Miguel de Zapiain, Tello Mantilla, Dionisio Alcala Galiano and Alexandro Belmonte among others, with the totals by rank and Total de Plazas 277, and the departure date of 17 September; 4, the eight months of victuals and five of water and firewood, the bales of warm clothing and preservative medicines embarked for the crews' health, the Berthoud longitude clocks numbers 15 and 16 belonging to the observatory of Cadiz and the small Arnold number 71 of D. Alexandro Belmonte, and the collection of instruments made in London by order of the Court by Jacinto Magallanes; 21, the December 1785 encounter with two Patagonians, the man calling himself Francisco Xavier, the companion of six feet and eleven and a half pulgadas of Burgos, the machete engraved POR EL REY CARLOS III, the lassos and bolas, and the refusal of wine and brandy; and 70, the return to Cadiz in June 1786 after eight months and two days, with the commander and two of the crew seriously ill, sixteen lightly touched by scurvy, and two sailors lost on the outward leg. The accompanying charts and derrotero were not opened." }, { "id": "cordoba-relacion-1788-introduccion-y-extracto", "title": "The introduction and the second part - extract of all earlier voyages and dissertation on the inhabitants - of Relacion del ultimo viage al Estrecho de Magallanes (Madrid, 1788)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=SI5gAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "Por la Viuda de Ibarra, Hijos y Compania, Madrid, 1788. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id SI5gAAAAcAAJ)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-15. Registered apart from the voyage relation because it is a compilation - the volume's own title calls it an extract of all the earlier voyages since the discovery, printed and manuscript, with a notice of the inhabitants, soil, climate and productions - built from other men's books and from manuscripts this run did not see. Tiered secondary; reliability 0.8 because it cites its sources by title and page and argues from them explicitly, which is unusual for its date, and because it is also a partisan document, written to defend the honour of the early Spanish navigators against foreign authors. Pages opened and read - iij of the introduction, the motives (what geography and hydrography would gain, each traveller having drawn the Strait his own way according to the anguish or hope he was in when naming its dangers; the length and harm of the Cape Horn route; and the closing formula of instruction and credit for the Navy, corrections for the sciences and utility for the State) together with the admission that Sarmiento's and the Nodales' plans were lost through \"la incuria de aquellos tiempos\"; and 323 to 325 of part II, the dissertation on the Patagonians - that they are in no way giants, the frigate's officers' measurement agreeing to within lines with Carteret, Wallis and Bougainville and with the Nodales' \"hombres membrudos y apersonados\"; the refusal of the charge that Spanish navigators originated the fable; and the review of the manuscript diaries, Albo silent on the Patagonians, Urdaneta calling them big and ugly, Mori and Camargo saying nothing of stature, Ladrillero calling them well built, proud and of great strength. Footnotes on those pages cite Solorzano de Jure Indiarum, the Histoire des Navigations aux terres australes, Hawkesworth and the Spanish translation of Byron's voyage." }, { "id": "beltran-arte-idioma-maya-1859", "title": "Pedro Beltran de Santa Rosa, Arte del idioma maya reducido a sucintas reglas y semilexicon yucateco, second edition (Merida de Yucatan, 1859)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=mVsmAAAAMAAJ", "publisher": "Imprenta de J. D. Espinosa, Merida de Yucatan, 1859. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id mVsmAAAAMAAJ, 270 pages)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-15. This is the 1859 Merida reprint of a grammar its editor dates to 1742 and to a Mexico printing of 1746; it is a reset text whose editor annotates it and disagrees with its orthography in a signed footnote, so it is tiered secondary on the same reasoning that tiers the 1898 Gilberti reprint secondary in this corpus, and reliability is 0.75 because the editor's foreword is also an advertisement for the book he is reprinting. Pages opened and read - the leaf headed \"Dos palabras del editor\" (the reimpression pressed on him by respectable persons; the Arte formed by Beltran in 1742 while master of the language and printed by him at Mexico in 1746; and the argument that it is the best of its class because its author was a son of Yucatan, raised among the Indians, and lived many years in the mountains administering the sacraments); page 1, the Exordio preliminar separating orthography from grammar, the Maya abecedario running a b c and the backwards-c character, ch h i k l m n o p pp t th tz u x y z, and the editor's footnote objecting that a single struck p would do the work of Beltran's pp, \"escribiendose poc, sombrero, pul, cancro; y no ppoc, ppul. - N. del E.\"; and page 242, the last page, carrying the end of the table of Christian feasts in Maya and then Beltran's printed retraction of the title of proto-master he had given Gabriel de San Buenaventura, awarding priority in composition to Luis de Villalpando, naming Landa as the second who perfected that grammar and first Provincial and second bishop of the see, and priority in printing to Juan Coronel, before the word FIN. The scan of page 242 is cut in the inner margin, so the first characters of most lines are lost and the reading is a reconstruction of the sense; claims resting on it are held at or below 0.8, and the Maya forms in the feast-day table at 0.7. The body of the grammar, its verb paradigms and the bulk of the semilexicon were not read." }, { "id": "acuna-nuevo-descubrimiento-amazonas-1641", "title": "Nuevo descubrimiento del gran rio de las Amazonas. Por el padre Chrstoual de Acuña, Religioso de la Compañia de Iesus, y Calificador de la Suprema General Inquisicion. Al qual fue, y se hizo por orden de su Magestad, el año de 1639. Por la Provincia de Quito en los Reynos del Perù", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=R28BAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Con licencia; En Madrid, en la Imprenta del Reyno, año de 1641. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The Madrid first edition of 1641, read as page scans on 2026-08-15: the title page (image PP7) and printed pages 16, 25, 26 and the leaf that follows page 25, 33, 34, 40 and 46. The volume is dedicated on its title page to the Conde Duque de Olivares. Reliability sits below the tier because the author is an interested witness twice over - a Jesuit sent by royal provision to report on the river, and a man arguing to the Crown for the occupation and evangelisation of it - and the book is a memorial as much as a description. Its value for a balanced object is that Acuña prints the case against his own companions: numbers LII and LXVII carry, in his own words, the Portuguese slave-taking that the expedition was being used for and his formal protest against it. Numbering in this copy is by printed page; the scan carries a second sequence of page images (pids ending -IA1) interleaved with the first, so the leaf following printed page 25 is image PA25-IA1 and not PA26." }, { "id": "juan-examen-maritimo-1771", "title": "Examen maritimo theórico práctico, ó Tratado de mechanica aplicado á la construccion, conocimiento y manejo de los navios y demas embarcaciones. Tomo primero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=94BfXaScDrEC&pg=PR1", "publisher": "Por D. Jorge Juan. En Madrid: En la Imprenta de D. Francisco Manuel de Mena, Calle de las Carretas. M.DCC.LXXI. Con permiso Superior. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The first edition, volume one, read as page scans on 2026-08-15: the title page (image PR1), prologue pages XIII and XXIX, the table of contents at image PR69, and printed page 269 with the scholium on the theory of resistances. The prologue is paginated in roman numerals and runs to LXXIV; the treatise proper begins at arabic page 1. The volume is used here for what its own sheets say - the author's survey of the existing European literature, his objections to Bouguer and to the pendulum theory of rolling, and the objection he states against his own theory of resistance before answering it. Nothing about the book's later reception is bound to this source." }, { "id": "juan-examen-maritimo-1793", "title": "Examen maritimo teórico práctico ó Tratado de mecánica aplicado á la construccion, conocimiento y manejo de los navíos y demás embarcaciones (second edition, with the editor's Introduccion and added notes)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=DAqnCCafCesC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Madrid, en la Imprenta Real, 1793. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The second Spanish edition of 1793, read as page scans on 2026-08-15: the opening of the editor's Introduccion (printed pages 5 and 6) and the first page of Jorge Juan's own Prólogo as reprinted here (printed page 9). Primary for what the 1793 editor states about his own work on the text - that he taught the first two books in a course of higher mathematics ending in February 1789 and found slips in them not flagged in the French translation - and for the bibliographical facts he reports about Lévêque's 1783 French translation. Reliability is set well below the tier because the Introduccion is an admiring Spanish editor's assessment of a Spanish author, so its praise is carried as opinion and not as fact. The pages opened do not name the editor; nothing is asserted here about who he was." }, { "id": "palacio-carta-al-rey-copan-1860", "title": "Carta dirijida al Rey de España, por el Licenciado Dr. Don Diego Garcia de Palacio, Oydor de la Real Audiencia de Guatemala. Año 1576", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=rkEaUOE3DT8C&pg=PA88", "publisher": "Diego García de Palacio; edited, with an English translation, notes and a map, by Ephraim George Squier; New York, C. B. Norton, agent for libraries, 1860. Full-view digitisation, Google Books, volume id rkEaUOE3DT8C", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The relación the oidor Diego García de Palacio sent to Philip II out of his visita of the provinces of the Audiencia of Guatemala, printed here in Spanish on the verso pages with Squier's English translation facing on the recto, followed by the editor's illustrative notes and an index. Pages read as page scans on 2026-08-15: PA9, the close of Squier's prefatory note on the confusion of the ruins with the town Hernando de Chávez took in 1530; PA16, the end of that introduction; PA18, the opening of the relación with the standing royal order that an oidor tour his district in turn; PA88 and PA90 and PA92, the section headed \"Ruinas de Copan\"; PA110, a specimen of Squier's notes; and PP7, the editor's folding map, which marks \"Ruins of Copan\", the route of Alvarado and the present political boundaries. Registered primary for the text of the 1576 relación as Squier printed it and not for the sixteenth-century manuscript, which was not reachable from this container: García Icazbalceta, already registered here as garcia-icazbalceta-catalogo-1886, judged this edition \"más hermosa que correcta\", and that judgement is why the reliability is 0.8 rather than higher and why the claims resting on wording rather than substance sit below 0.9. The English translation was not collated against the Spanish for this object; every quotation used is taken from the Spanish pages." }, { "id": "reglamento-milicias-cuba-1769-habana-1833", "title": "Reglamento para las milicias de infanteria, y caballeria de la isla de Cuba, aprobado por S. M. en Real cédula de 19 de enero de 1769. Reimpreso", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=QT3su_qtKJMC&pg=PA20", "publisher": "Habana, Oficina del Gobierno y Capitanía General, por E. M., 1833. Full-view digitisation, Google Books, volume id QT3su_qtKJMC", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The disciplined-militia regulation of Cuba, printed by the island government's own press in 1833 from the text approved by royal cédula of 19 January 1769, with footnotes that carry later royal orders (8 August 1773, 20 April 1774, 11 February 1795) and, from page 48, a separate Real declaración on essential points of the reglamento. Pages read as page scans on 2026-08-15: PA3, the royal intitulation and chapter I article 1; PA4, the composition and total establishment; PA20, chapter IV \"Del fuero y goces de estos cuerpos\", articles 1 to 5; PA22, articles 11 to 17 of the same chapter, including the article on the officers of the pardo and moreno battalions and the two wartime pay scales; PA31, article 26 on cadets; and PA41, chapter X \"Del fuero y preeminencias\". The title-page reading of the 1769 cédula date and of the 1833 imprint is from the volume's search layer rather than from the page image, which is why the printing history is reported at 0.85 and not higher. Registered primary as a reprint: it is an official printing of the rulebook and evidence of the text in force, at one remove from the 1769 sheets." }, { "id": "colon-larriategui-juzgados-militares-1788", "title": "Juzgados militares de España y sus Indias", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=dGY-vja-aLUC&pg=PA356", "publisher": "Félix Colón de Larriátegui; second edition, Madrid, Viuda de Ibarra, 1788. Full-view digitisation, Google Books, volume id dGY-vja-aLUC", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The standard Spanish reference work on military jurisdiction, which transcribes the articles of the royal declarations it explains. Page PA356 read as a page scan on 2026-08-15, carrying article XXII of the Real declaración on the Monte Pío Militar communicated to the Indies on 20 July 1773, with the marginal rubric \"Comunicacion á Indias de la Real declarac. antecedente sobre el Monte pio\". Registered primary for the text of the articles it prints and not for the original cédulas. The volume is a compilation by a serving officer, and its search layer returns only two passages on the militias of pardos and morenos in this tome, which is why it is used here for one counterpoint and not as a general authority on those corps." }, { "id": "alaman-1844-testamento-de-cortes", "title": "Testamento de Hernan Cortes, marques del Valle de Oajaca, printed in the Apendice segundo to volume II of the Disertaciones", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=BMFYAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA102", "publisher": "Lucas Alaman (ed.), Disertaciones sobre la historia de la Republica megicana, tomo II, apendice segundo; Mexico: Imprenta de J. M. Lara, 1844. Full-view digitisation", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The text of Cortes's testament as printed, clause by numbered clause, in the separately paginated second appendix of Alaman's volume. Registered apart from Alaman's own narrative so that the document's tier is not borrowed by his commentary, and reliability held at 0.85 because this is a nineteenth-century transcription: the editor's own footnote on RA1-PA106 states that the manuscript copy followed differs from the copy used by Dr. Mora and that the clause has been corrected against the latter. Page scans opened and read 2026-08-15: RA1-PA102 (the Seville notarial subscription, then the opening protocol, \"yo D. Fernando Cortes, marques del Valle de Oajaca... Estando enfermo\"); RA1-PA106 (clause 9, the hospital of Nuestra Senora de la Concepcion in Mexico City to be finished at his cost, the wooden model by Pedro Vazquez Jumetrico, the plan sent to New Spain \"este presente ano de mil e quinientos e cuarenta y siete\", and the rents of his shops and houses on the plaza and the streets of Tacuba and San Francisco assigned to the work and to nothing else); RA1-PA107 (the tail of clause 9, governance to follow the hospital de las Cinco Plagas of Seville founded by Dona Catalina de Rivero, and clause 10 on the chapel at Medellin); RA1-PA108 (clause 11, the works ordered \"para en descargacion e satisfaccion de cualquiera culpa e cargo que pudiese agraviar mi conciencia, de que no me acuerde\", and clause 12, the Concepcion convent at Coyoacan); RA1-PA125 (clause 38 on tributes taken according to the pre-conquest padrones, and the opening of clause 39 on the slaves \"asi de guerra como de resgate\"); RA1-PA126 (the close of clause 39, clause 40 on lands taken for orchards, vineyards and cotton fields and the order to restore them to the naturales with their profits, and clause 41 on personal and other services)." }, { "id": "alaman-1844-disertaciones-t2-hospital-de-jesus", "title": "Sexta disertacion: fundaciones de Cortes - el hospital de Jesus", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=BMFYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA85", "publisher": "Lucas Alaman, Disertaciones sobre la historia de la Republica megicana, tomo II; Mexico: Imprenta de J. M. Lara, 1844. Full-view digitisation", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Alaman's own narrative of the Cortes foundations, registered separately from the testament it prints and tiered below it. Reliability held at 0.7 because the register is frankly commemorative - the hospital is \"uno de los monumentos mas venerables de nuestro pais\" - and because the author is writing the history of the estate whose founder he is defending. Pages read 2026-08-15: PA85 (the hospital \"fue incontestablemente el primero que hubo\", its foundation placed \"en alguno de los tres anos primeros inmediatos a la conquista\", and the carved lintel inscription \"Diego Diaz Deusbona, de nacion portugues, hizo esta ventana, ano de 1535\", the window closed in 1800 after the San Juan de Dios earthquake); PA101-PA102 (the chaplaincy of Bachiller Benavides from 22 May 1662, and Petronila Geronima, \"india rica\", whose testament had her venerated image of Jesus Nazareno drawn by lot among five churches, the lot falling three times to the hospital); PA103 (the change of name in common use to Jesus Nazareno; the rents rising from 4,000 ducados - \"dos mil docientos pesos\" - when Cortes ceded them to 11,200 pesos by Siguenza y Gongora's time; Siguenza's staffing list - three chaplains, an administrator, a physician, a surgeon, a barber, an enfermero mayor, a nurse, a cook, \"tres indios que por turnos venian de Cuyoacan a cuidar de la limpieza, y ocho esclavos hombres y mugeres para asistir en todo el servicio domestico\" - the apothecary contracted at 500 pesos a year, and about 400 patients a year averaged from the entry books)." }, { "id": "diccionario-universal-1853-cortes-hospital-concepcion", "title": "Diccionario universal de historia y de geografia, article COR[TES, Hernan]", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Vr2l03RR9gkC&pg=PA580", "publisher": "Diccionario universal de historia y de geografia; Mexico, 1853. Full-view digitisation", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.65, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Registered as a second nineteenth-century Mexican witness to the foundation, and deliberately given the lowest reliability of the three: the Diccionario was compiled in the same Mexico City circle that produced the Disertaciones and its account of Cortes may not be independent of Alaman's. Page read 2026-08-15: PA580, which lists among the graces obtained at Rome through Cortes's envoy Juan de Rada \"el patronato perpetuo del hospital de la Purisima Concepcion, hoy conocido con el nombre de Jesus, que habia fundado Cortes desde los primeros dias despues de la conquista\", alongside the legitimation of his natural children; the same page gives the cedulas of 6 July 1529 creating him marques del Valle de Oajaca and his landing at Veracruz on 15 July 1530." }, { "id": "carlos-v-patente-hospital-y-colegio-de-michoacan-1543", "title": "Real Patente of Charles V and Dona Juana accepting the patronage of the hospital and college founded by Vasco de Quiroga in Michoacan, Barcelona, 1 May 1543", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=QSx5kXUcEDsC&pg=PA58", "publisher": "Printed in Juan Joseph Moreno, Fragmentos de la vida y virtudes... de D. Vasco de Quiroga, cap. X; Mexico: Imprenta del Real y mas Antiguo Colegio de S. Ildefonso, 1766. Full-view digitisation", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The royal patent transcribed in full inside the 1766 life, opening on PA57 and running to the subscription on PA58; page scans opened and read 2026-08-15. Reliability at 0.85 rather than higher because the transcription is printed by the college the document benefits. It recites that Quiroga has begun in the city of Michoacan \"un Hospital, para que se acoxan los Pobres enfermos, assi Espanoles, e Indios, y un Colegio donde los hijos de los Espanoles legitimos, y Mestizos, y algunos Indios, por ser Lenguas, para que puedan mejor aprovechar con ellos deprendan Grammatica, y juntamente con ella los Indios hablar nuestra lengua Castellana, cosa mui util, y necessaria\"; that Quiroga had asked the Crown to take the title of patron of both; and that the Crown accepts the patronazgo for itself and its successors. Dated \"en la Ciudad de Barcelona a primero dia del mes de Mayo de mil y quinientos quarenta y tres anos. YO EL REY.\"" }, { "id": "moreno-1766-vida-quiroga-colegio-de-san-nicolas", "title": "Fragmentos de la vida y virtudes... de D. Vasco de Quiroga, caps. IX-X: the college of San Nicolas Obispo", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=QSx5kXUcEDsC&pg=PA56", "publisher": "Juan Joseph Moreno; Mexico: Imprenta del Real y mas Antiguo Colegio de S. Ildefonso, 1766. Full-view digitisation", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.65, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The chapters of the 1766 life that deal with the college, registered separately from the royal patent they print and from the entry already in this registry for the biography as a whole, so that the pages read on 2026-08-15 carry their own access date. An interested source and tiered accordingly: the title page names the author as Rector of the same Colegio de San Nicolas and states that the college published the book. Pages read 2026-08-15: PA56 (the consent of the Franciscan provincial Fr. Juan de Cerpa and of Bishop Fr. Juan de Medina Rincon sought for the union, and the petition laid before the city council of Valladolid); PA57 (the union of the Colegio de San Miguel of Valladolid with that of San Nicolas Obispo of Patzcuaro \"en 10 de Octubre de 1580 anos, quatro meses despues de la translacion de la Iglesia\"; and cap. X, that Quiroga left the patronage of the hospitals to the college's Rector, ordered that the collegians elect their own Rector, and wished the Rectors of college and hospitals to be alumni of it, before applying to Charles V for royal protection)." }, { "id": "romero-1862-noticias-obispado-de-michoacan", "title": "Noticias para formar la historia y la estadistica del obispado de Michoacan, presentadas a la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica en 1860", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=EgCIzC-dND8C&pg=PA47", "publisher": "Jose Guadalupe Romero; Mexico: Imprenta de Vicente Garcia Torres, 1862. Full-view digitisation", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "A diocesan statistical and historical survey by a canon of the cathedral of Valladolid-Morelia, read as page scans on 2026-08-15. Partisan for the church of Michoacan and used with that in view. PA47: San Nicolas obispo is the oldest of the four colleges of the capital, \"fundado en Patzcuaro el ano de 1540 por el Sr. Quiroga, con el caracter de Seminario\"; the claim, quoted by Romero from \"el autor de la vida del Sr. Quiroga\", that the Council of Trent \"no tuvo otro modelo para lo que determino en el cap. 18 ses. 23\" than what Quiroga had prescribed in Michoacan; and the Latin inscription under Quiroga's portrait in the aula mayor, \"Vel Tridentinorum Patrum / Vota praevenit. / Nempe, ante Hic Collegium extruxit...\". PA48: the seminary moved to Valladolid with the cathedral chapter; the provisor Alonso Ruiz united Fr. Juan de San Miguel's college to San Nicolas in 1580; the college served its purpose until 1810, when its funds ruined by the war of independence and its community dissolved it had to close, and stayed shut until 1847, when the ecclesiastical chapter ceded the building and its capitals to the government of the State; and that Antonio Vitzimengari y Mendoza, son of the last king of Michoacan and godson of Viceroy Mendoza, studied there under Fr. Alonso de la Veracruz, \"muy instruido en los idiomas Hebreo, Griego, Latino, Castellano y Tarasco\", later governor of Tzintzuntzan. PA49: alumni in the highest posts of church and state, Iturbide and Mariano Michelena among them. PA92-PA93, on Uruapan: the Tarascans withdrawn into the sierra \"por el horror que concibieron contra Nuno de Guzman, que habia sacrificado cruelmente al rey Calzonzin\"; Fr. Juan de San Miguel learning Tarascan in 1536 and founding Tancitaro, Charapan, Periban \"y otros muchos de la sierra\", with churches and hospitals in all of them; the founding of Uruapan in 1540, the site chosen and the plaza, streets and huertas traced by him, schools of first letters and of music, the crafts taught, and the town \"defendido valerosamente de toda opresion por parte de los conquistadores\"; a chapel at the end of each street, one to a barrio, of which nine still stood in 1862; the colonists \"algunos los hacen subir hasta 20,000\", afterwards cut down by pestilence; the name from Tarascan \"Urani\", jicara; the fruit acclimatised in the huertas, including four kinds of plantain after Quiroga's first plants at Ziracuaretiro; the convent turned hospital carrying on its facade the statue \"que los indios agradecidos levantaron a la memoria de su bienhechor\"; and the parish church burnt in 1813 \"por los independientes\"." }, { "id": "moreno-1766-vida-quiroga-platano-de-santo-domingo", "title": "Fragmentos de la vida y virtudes... de D. Vasco de Quiroga: the plantains brought from Santo Domingo", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=QSx5kXUcEDsC&pg=PA92", "publisher": "Juan Joseph Moreno; Mexico: Imprenta del Real y mas Antiguo Colegio de S. Ildefonso, 1766. Full-view digitisation", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Page PA92 of the 1766 life, read as a page scan on 2026-08-15 and registered apart from the same volume's chapters on the college. Reliability is set low because the passage is itself a report at one remove - the marginal note cites \"Basalen. lib. 1. c. 20\", the Augustinian chronicler Diego Basalenque - and because it is a Michoacan house claiming a first for a Michoacan bishop. It states that Quiroga, holding that \"el Comercio, y la labranza, son los medios mas oportunos para establecer la felicidad de un estado, desterrando la ociosidad\", and seeing that the kingdom lacked the plantain, brought plants from the island of Santo Domingo where he had stopped to take on water; that five reached the province and were planted at Tziriquaretiro near Taretan, chosen for the likeness of its climate to Santo Domingo; and that \"aqui fue donde se dieron los primeros Platanos de la Nueva Espana, y de aqui se ha llenado toda ella\". The same page begins the distinction of three kinds of plantain, one of them known in the province as \"de Uruapan\"." }, { "id": "ming-2015-pineapple-genome", "title": "The pineapple genome and the evolution of CAM photosynthesis", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4867222/", "publisher": "Ray Ming, Robert VanBuren, Ching Man Wai and 67 co-authors; Nature Genetics 47(12):1435-1442 (2015), Nature Publishing Group. Read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Reference genome of Ananas comosus, read as full HTML text on 2026-08-15. Used here for four statements only: that pineapple \"was already cultivated on a continental-wide scale following its initial domestication in northern South America, possibly more than 6000 BP\"; that Columbus met it in the West Indies in 1493; that the plant \"is self-incompatible and all pre-Columbian and most post-Columbian varieties were selected from somatic mutations\", so that cultivation runs by clonal propagation; and that \"by the end of the 16th century pineapple had become pantropical\". The paper's principal subject is the C3-to-CAM transition and the circadian regulation of CAM genes, which is not what it is cited for here, and its historical sentences are brief framing rather than its own evidence - hence reliability at 0.9 for the genomics and the historical claims bound to it kept at or below 0.9." }, { "id": "lyu-2025-pineapple-germplasm-snp", "title": "Unraveling genetic diversity and population structure of pineapple germplasm using genome-wide SNP markers", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12276139/", "publisher": "Haomin Lyu, Tracie Matsumoto and Qingyi Yu; Molecular Genetics and Genomics 300(1):71 (2025), Springer. Read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Population-genomic survey of 91 pineapple accessions, including 68 of Ananas comosus var. comosus, with over 7.9 million high-quality SNPs; read as full HTML text on 2026-08-15. Used for the statement that \"cultivated pineapples have a relatively narrow genetic base, owing to their origins and propagation from a limited genetic reservoir\", for the low within-population inbreeding coefficients of the Queen, Singapore Spanish and Smooth Cayenne groups as the signature of \"predominantly asexual reproduction\", and for the conclusion that var. comosus was domesticated from var. microstachys with the Guianas and the Amazon as the likely epicentres of domestication. That last point differs in emphasis from the 2015 genome paper's \"northern South America\", which is why the claim that reports geography names both readings." }, { "id": "ning-2026-cotton-yucatan-domestication", "title": "Genomic diversity and the domestication history of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13213997/", "publisher": "Weixuan Ning, Mark A. Arick II, Joshua A. Udall, Chuan-Yu Hsu and 16 co-authors; Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 123(21):e2607107123 (18 May 2026). Read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Population genomics of 392 samples - 158 newly collected in northern Yucatan, 141 from south-western coastal Florida, 51 previously sequenced wild cottons from other Caribbean locations, 30 domesticated accessions and 12 outgroups, yielding 21.6 million biallelic variants of which 1.9 million SNPs were retained for the G. hirsutum analysis. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-15. Used for the conclusion that \"the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico) was the center of original domestication, from which later modern annualized cultivars were derived\", for the archaeological dating of the parallel domestications of G. hirsutum and G. barbadense to \"around 5,500 y ago in the northern Yucatan Peninsula\", and for the description of cotton as the leading fibre crop globally. The paper gives no percentage share of world production, so no percentage is claimed here." }, { "id": "vega-2023-hirsutum-landraces-mexico", "title": "Multiple domestication events explain the origin of Gossypium hirsutum landraces in Mexico", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9994486/", "publisher": "Melania Vega, Christian Quintero-Corrales, Alicia Mastretta-Yanes, Alejandro Casas and two co-authors; Ecology and Evolution 13(3):e9838 (2023), Wiley. Read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Chloroplast-genome phylogeny of 23 wild, landrace and breeding-line samples of Gossypium hirsutum from Mexico, read as full HTML text on 2026-08-15. Reliability is set below the tier because 23 chloroplast genomes are a thin sample beside the 392 nuclear-sequenced accessions of the 2026 PNAS study, and because a maternally inherited genome cannot by itself settle a domestication history. Used for the finding that \"the evolutionary history of cotton in Mexico involves multiple events of introgression and genetic divergence\" and for the two divergence estimates - about 11,700 years BP between the wild Yucatan-Guatemala variety and the rest of the samples, and about 3,600 years BP between the Banderas Bay wild population and the Oaxacan coyuchi landrace. Cited as the dissenting reading of the same question, not as the settled one." }, { "id": "white-2020-origins-of-coca", "title": "The Origins of Coca: Museum Genomics Reveals Multiple Independent Domestications from Progenitor Erythroxylum gracilipes", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7744036/", "publisher": "Dawson M. White, Jen-Pan Huang, Orlando Adolfo Jara-Munoz, Santiago Madrinan and two co-authors; Systematic Biology 70(1):1-13 (2020), Oxford University Press. Read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Phylogenomic study of 424 nuclear genes from 154 Erythroxylum samples, about 90 per cent of them herbarium specimens, read as full HTML text on 2026-08-15. Used for the conclusion that coca \"originated two or three times from this wild progenitor\" Erythroxylum gracilipes; for the assignment of Colombian and Trujillo coca to one older domestication in north-western South America, of Huanuco coca to a second, possibly in south-eastern Peru, and of Amazonian coca either to Huanuco ancestry or to a third event; for the population differentiation values (FST 0.25-0.78); and for the note that the Colombian-Trujillo lineage has the most extensive pre-Columbian archaeological record. The paper is a systematics paper and makes no claim about colonial administration, so nothing colonial is bound to it." }, { "id": "restrepo-2019-erythroxylum-review", "title": "Erythroxylum in Focus: An Interdisciplinary Review of an Overlooked Genus", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6833119/", "publisher": "David A. Restrepo, Ernesto Saenz, Orlando Adolfo Jara-Munoz, Ivan F. Calixto-Botia and five co-authors; Molecules 24(20):3788 (2019), MDPI. Read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Interdisciplinary review of the genus, read as full HTML text on 2026-08-15. Reliability is set well below the tier on the review's own warning about its evidence base: the articles available on coca's physiological and health effects \"consist of case studies rather than clinical trials\". Used for four points only - that coca is among the oldest cultivated medicinal plant species with evidence of use \"dating back at least 8000 years in South America\"; that the genus holds roughly 230 species of which two cultivated species carry four recognised varieties (E. coca var. coca, var. ipadu, E. novogranatense var. novogranatense and var. truxillense); the reported cocaine content of the four varieties, from 0.11-0.41 per cent of dry weight in Amazonian coca to 0.77 per cent on average in Colombian coca; and the leaf's content of protein, minerals and vitamins. The review has no substantive treatment of the colonial period, so no colonial claim rests on it." }, { "id": "matute-pacheco-2026-achucarro", "title": "Nicolás Achúcarro: A forgotten architect of glial biology and neuroprotection", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13394739/", "publisher": "Neuroprotection (2026), Wiley on behalf of the Chinese Medical Association. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Peer-reviewed historical review by Carlos Matute (University of the Basque Country) and Luis Pacheco (Academy of Medical Sciences of Bilbao), doi 10.1002/nep3.70051, published online ahead of print 23 July 2026. Read as full HTML text on 2026-08-15. Supports the life dates 1880-1918, the training in Madrid, Paris, Florence and Munich under Kraepelin and Alzheimer, the Washington period at the Government Hospital for the Insane (St Elizabeths) between 1908 and 1910 and the laboratory organised there, the 1911 tannin-ammoniacal silver method, the glioarchitectonic study of the cornu Ammonis and fascia dentata, the descriptions of glial reactivity in rabies, paralytic dementia and senile pathology, and the authors' own concession that \"he did not name microglia\" and \"did not formally define oligodendrocytes\" and that those discoveries \"are rightly attributed to his disciple Pío del Río-Hortega\". Reliability is set at 0.75 rather than higher because the piece is explicitly an argument for a neglected figure, written by authors based in his home region, and because its claim about \"some of the earliest descriptions of Alzheimer-type pathology reported in the United States\" is carried from a separate historical paper rather than from primary records; claims resting on that point are held at 0.7." }, { "id": "tremblay-2015-achucarro-hortega-microglia", "title": "From the Cajal alumni Achúcarro and Río-Hortega to the rediscovery of never-resting microglia", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4396411/", "publisher": "Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 9:45 (2015), Frontiers Media. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Peer-reviewed historical and scientific review by Tremblay, Lecours, Samson, Sánchez-Zafra and Sierra, doi 10.3389/fnana.2015.00045. Read as full text on 2026-08-15. Used for the technical history: Achúcarro's tannin and ammoniacal silver nitrate method of about 1911, developed after his return to Madrid in 1910; the \"granuloadipose\" cells seen around lesions in rabbit brains infected with rabies or carrying inflammatory injury and his reading of their rod shape as movement and their function as phagocytosis; the separation of phagocytic, granuloadipose and non-fibrous rod cells from stellate cells; Río-Hortega's silver carbonate method of 1916-1917 as a modification of Achúcarro's approach and the resolution of microglia from the interfascicular cells later called oligodendrocytes; Penfield's confirmation of Río-Hortega's priority in 1924; and the two limits stated against Achúcarro - Cajal's judgement that his staining gave partial and inconsistent labelling, and his inability to discriminate between an ectodermal derivation and a contribution from circulating monocytes." }, { "id": "de-castro-2019-cajal-spanish-school", "title": "Cajal and the Spanish Neurological School: Neuroscience Would Have Been a Different Story Without Them", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6542961/", "publisher": "Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 13:187 (2019), Frontiers Media. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Peer-reviewed review by Fernando de Castro (CSIC), doi 10.3389/fncel.2019.00187, published 24 May 2019. Read on 2026-08-15, with the quoted sentences confirmed verbatim in a second pass. Supports the roster of the school (Tello, Pedro Ramón y Cajal, Domingo Sánchez, Achúcarro, Río-Hortega, Fernando de Castro, Lorente de Nó); Achúcarro's entry to Cajal's laboratory as director of the Laboratory of Neuropathology in 1913 and the suggestion that glial malfunction could itself generate disease; Lorente de Nó's work with Bárány, his move to the United States and the Rockefeller years; the Nobel nominations of 1949 and 1950 from American institutions and of 1952 and 1953 from European ones; the statement that the international community \"rallied against Lorente's refusal to accept the chemical basis of synaptic transmission and even more flagrantly, his rejection of the ionic nature of nerve impulses\"; Sherrington's 1935 sentence naming Achúcarro, Hortega and de Castro; and the Civil War dispersal - exile for Lafora and Río-Hortega and most of his disciples, Villaverde assassinated, Tello and de Castro demoted, and Archivos de Neurobiología closed by the authorities in 1939. The title is a thesis and the paper argues it; reliability is set at 0.75 accordingly, and its evaluative statements are used as attributed opinion, not as fact." }, { "id": "larriva-sahd-2014-lorente-de-no-predictions", "title": "Some predictions of Rafael Lorente de Nó 80 years later", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4253658/", "publisher": "Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 8:147 (2014), Frontiers Media. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Peer-reviewed commentary by Jorge A. Larriva-Sahd (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México), doi 10.3389/fnana.2014.00147, published 3 December 2014. Read as full text on 2026-08-15 and the key passages re-read in the raw page text. Supports birth at Zaragoza on 8 April 1902 and death at Tucson on 2 April 1990; the tutelage of Pedro Ramón y Cajal and entry to Cajal's laboratory; the 1931 crossing to the Central Institute for the Deaf in St Louis, the 1935 lectureship at Washington University, the Rockefeller Institute from 1936 to retirement in 1970, and the move to Tucson in 1981; the coining of cortical \"module\" or \"elementary unit\" and the argument that it dates from 1933 rather than the 1949 chapter; the closed chain of superficial and deep pyramids with its refractory-period condition; the predictions on dendritic and perisomatic summation and on the unlikeness of central synapse and neuromuscular junction; the confirmations by Mountcastle and Powell and by Hubel and Wiesel in 1959; and the author's own note that \"column\" is often a context-defined notion, with the disputing literature named. The piece is an appreciation, so its evaluative claims are carried at 0.75-0.8." }, { "id": "brown-2026-lorente-de-no-hebb", "title": "The influence of Cajal and Lorente de Nó on Donald O. Hebb's neuropsychological theory", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13454044/", "publisher": "Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 20:1861011 (2026), Frontiers Media. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Peer-reviewed history-of-science paper by Richard E. Brown, doi 10.3389/fnana.2026.1861011, published 27 July 2026. Read on 2026-08-15 and the quotations confirmed verbatim in a second pass. Supports Hebb's own recollection of February 1944 quoted in full from Hebb (1980a) p. 295; the route by which he met the work, Hilgard and Marquis's Conditioning and Learning (1940), quoted from Hebb (1958) p. 266; the four Lorente de Nó papers referenced in The Organization of Behavior (1938a, 1938b, 1939, 1943); the function the closed circuit served in cell-assembly theory; and the counterpoint that none of the four editions of Hebb's textbook included references to any of Lorente de Nó's papers, the figures being credited to secondary sources." }, { "id": "noceda-sanlucar-vocabulario-tagala-manila-1860", "title": "Vocabulario de la lengua tagala, compuesto por varios religiosos doctos y graves, y coordinado por el P. Juan de Noceda y el P. Pedro de Sanlucar", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=PTIOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Juan José de Noceda and Pedro de Sanlúcar, of the Society of Jesus; últimamente aumentado y corregido por varios religiosos de la Orden de Agustinos calzados. Reimpreso en Manila, Imprenta de Ramirez y Giraudier, 1860. Full-view digitisation of the Stanford Library copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The Jesuit Tagalog dictionary, licensed at Manila in 1753-54, read as page scans on 2026-08-15 in the Manila 1860 reprint - the third printing, after the first Manila edition and the Valladolid reprint of 1832. Reliability is set below the tier because this is a reprint at a century's remove from the composition, edited and augmented by Augustinians who are not named individually, and because the volume's own prologue complains that the accent diacritics were mangled by the compositors of an earlier printing. Pages opened and read 2026-08-15: PP1-PP4, binding and blanks; PP5, the title page with the Manila 1860 imprint of Ramirez y Giraudier; PP7, the aprobación of Fr. Juan Serrano, Augustinian visitador of the Province of the Most Holy Name of Jesus, praising Sanlúcar's command of \"el idioma Tagalog\"; PP10, the licencia del gobierno of Governor and Captain General Francisco José de Obando, Marqués de Obando, by decree of 6 November 1753; PP12, the close of the aprobación of Fr. Blas de Plasencia, signed at the Convento de San Martín de Bocaue on 19 October 1753, which credits the work with \"mas de tres mil términos ó voces que hasta ahora no se hallan en vocabularios que tratan de este idioma\" and calls it \"libro de oro para los Ministros y Curas de nuestros indios tagalos\"; PP13, the licencia del ordinario of Archbishop Pedro de la Santísima Trinidad Martínez y Arizala, Manila, 1 January 1754; PP15-PP17, the Prólogo á este Vocabulario - the count of thirty-seven artes of Tagalog read by the writer, the descent of the thesaurus method from Fr. Francisco de San José through Fr. Miguel Ruiz (letters A-D) and Fr. Tomás de los Reyes (to M, N, Ng, O) to Pablo Clain, Francisco Jansens and José Hernández, who \"añadieron cerca de cuatro mil raices\", Noceda's thirty years of word-by-word verification and his rule of not passing from one root to the next unless twelve \"indios ladinos\" agreed on its pronunciation, accent and meaning, and the acknowledgement that \"la nacion tagala se compone ya del Comintang, ya de los tingues, ya de los tagalos de Corte\"; PP19, \"Algunas advertencias para el uso de este Vocabulario\" and \"De los acentos en general\", where the four accents are set out with their notation and referred to Fr. Domingo de los Santos and Pedro Lope, with baga as the example that \"tiene tantos acentos como letras, y tantas significaciones como acentos\"; PP20, \"De los acentos radicales\", the ordered rules for predicting the accent of a root and the complaint that the compositors \"jamàs atinaron con esta diferencia\" of diacritic; PP21, the close of the prologue on the \"juego de las raices\", the abbreviated affix paradigm printed under each root; PA1, the first page of the dictionary body, \"De la letra A\", showing entries with accent mark, gloss, affix paradigm and Tagalog example sentences." }, { "id": "santos-vocabulario-tagala-sampaloc-1794", "title": "Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala. Primera, y segunda parte. En la primera, se pone primero el Castellano, y despues el Tagalo. Y en la segunda al contrario, que son las rayzes simples con sus accentos", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=0FtRZ2r9ibYC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Fray Domingo de los Santos, ex-difinidor of the Franciscan Province of San Gregorio in the Philippines; reimpreso en la Imprenta de N. S. de Loreto del pueblo de Sampaloc, por el hermano Balthasar Mariano, donado franciscano, anno M.DCC.XC.IV. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The Franciscan Tagalog dictionary, read as page scans on 2026-08-15 in the Sampaloc 1794 reprint. Reliability is set below the tier because the volume is a reprint and nowhere states the date or place of the first printing - the archbishop's licence bound into it authorises a reimpression and is dated 1793 - so nothing about the original imprint is taken from it. Pages opened and read 2026-08-15: PP5, the title page, with the two-part structure (Spanish-Tagalog, then Tagalog-Spanish \"rayzes simples con sus accentos\"), the author's Franciscan offices, and the Sampaloc imprint naming \"el hermano Balthasar Mariano donado franciscano\" as the printer; PP7-PP8, the dedication to the Province of San Gregorio, which states the purpose that ministers \"den á entender á estos naturales lo que les conviene\"; PP10, the numbered notes on accent - the guttural accent held before the last syllable, the four-way set on baga, the accent shifts that derive adjectives, reciprocals, frequentatives and abstracts, and the T that marks a word as belonging to the speech of the Tingues, with the uplands defined from the mountains of San Pablo through Nacarlan to Calaylayan and on to the mountains of Cabinti; PP11, the closing notes - that Spanish loanwords are deliberately excluded, that one Tagalog voice serves many Spanish ones \"por la falta que la lengua Tagala tiene de Vocablos\", and the last note on how to question speakers: never ask the meaning of a bare root, put it in a sentence instead, and expect the Indio to answer \"Si Padre, derecho está\" to everything if he perceives that the priest will be displeased to be contradicted; PP12, the licence and decree of the Archbishop of Manila, 7 December 1793, granting the Franciscan procurator general Fr. Miguel de la Madre de Dios leave to reprint; PA1, the opening of letter A, a treatise on the enclitic particles - ay used to a woman and oy to a man, the hesitation particle E, the self-correction formula \"nag camali pala aco, E\", and the honorific alternative to the plain genitive." }, { "id": "chimalpahin-annales-simeon-1889-text", "title": "Annales de Domingo Francisco de San Anton Muñon Chimalpahin Quauhtlehuanitzin, sixième et septième relations (1258-1612): the Nahuatl text and facing French translation printed from the original manuscript", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=3V8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR3", "publisher": "Domingo Francisco de San Antón Muñón Chimalpahin Quauhtlehuanitzin, of Amaquemecan Chalco (1579-c.1660); published and translated on the original manuscript by Rémi Siméon, Bibliothèque Linguistique Américaine tome XII. Paris, Maisonneuve et Ch. Leclerc, 25 quai Voltaire, 1889. Harvard University copy, full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The annalist's own text, in Nahuatl with a French translation set in the facing column and the Christian year in the outer margin, read as page scans on 2026-08-15. Pages opened: PR1, the half-title \"BIBLIOTHÈQUE LINGUISTIQUE AMÉRICAINE, TOME XII / ANNALES DE CHIMALPAHIN\"; PR3, the title page with the editor's name, the statement \"PUBLIÉES ET TRADUITES SUR LE MANUSCRIT ORIGINAL\", the Maisonneuve et Ch. Leclerc imprint and the date 1889; PA12, the entries for the years 6 rabbit 1550 (arrival of the viceroy Luis de Velasco the elder, the Amaquemeque meeting him at Chollolan and dancing, the mortality from quechpoçahualiztli, the deaths of Don Juan Ytztlitentzin tlahtohuani of Tenanco and of Don Carlos of Mamalhuaçocan, the first coming of the Dominicans to Amaquemecan) and 13 rabbit 1570 (death of Don Pedro Tlacahuepantzin at Mexico; fray Luis de Unade, vicario, and fray Luis Regino, presidente), together with the editor's five footnotes to that page, among them the marginal addition against 1550 recording the departure of the viceroy Antonio de Mendoza. Reliability is set below the tier for the reason the tier itself carries: this is the author's text at one remove, established and paragraphed by a nineteenth- century editor working from a manuscript in a private collection, and the Nahuatl orthography printed is that editor's reading of it." }, { "id": "chimalpahin-annales-simeon-1889-introduction", "title": "Annales de Chimalpahin: Rémi Siméon's Introduction (pages V and XII-XIII)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=3V8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR5", "publisher": "Rémi Siméon, lauréat de l'Institut, author of the Dictionnaire de la langue nahuatl; Paris, Maisonneuve et Ch. Leclerc, 1889. Harvard University copy, full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The editor's own introduction, read as page scans on 2026-08-15 and registered separately from the text it introduces because it is nineteenth-century French scholarship and not the annalist. Pages opened: PR5, the opening claim that this is the first time in France that a long and complete Nahuatl text has been published with translation and explanatory notes, with the survey of what Mexican literature was previously known from (annotations on figurative paintings, tlatolli, liturgical pieces put into Mexican by the Spanish monks) and the footnote on Brinton's 1887 collection; PR12, the paragraphs on Tezozomoc and on Christoval del Castillo followed by Chimalpahin's birth at Amaquemecan on the night of 26-27 May 1579, his names and his descent from the kings of Tzacualtitlan-Ténanco-Amaquemecan-Chalco; PR13, the statement that infinitely few details of his life are known, his education, his knowledge of history, geography and astronomy, the four items of Boturini's catalogue with their date ranges, the note that M. Aubin possesses eight Relations, and the report on Bustamante's authority that Chimalpahin had translated Gómara's Historia de las conquistas de Hernando Cortés into Mexican. Reliability below tier: the editor is reporting Boturini and Bustamante at second hand and is also the party presenting his own edition as a first." }, { "id": "saco-historia-esclavitud-t1-1879", "title": "Historia de la esclavitud de la raza africana en el Nuevo Mundo y en especial en los paises américo-hispanos, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=e2NJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA237", "publisher": "José Antonio Saco; Barcelona, Imprenta de J. Jepús, 1879. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id e2NJAAAAIAAJ; a second full-view scan of the same tomo carries the id g18NAAAAYAAJ)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The first volume of the documentary history of African slavery in the Spanish Indies by José Antonio Saco (1797-1879), published in the year of his death. It is a secondary source and is tiered as one: sixteenth-century texts reach the reader through his transcription and his selection, and the reliability is set below what a work of this standing would otherwise carry because he was himself a party to the abolition argument of his own century in Cuba and writes as one — he says outright that some Spaniards denounced the traffic \"para honra de España\". He is nevertheless an argumentative and self-correcting witness who names his authorities in footnotes, prints the passages he relies on at length, and convicts his own heroes: he admits Las Casas to the list of those who condemned the trade only after stating that Las Casas \"no una sino muchas veces pidió que se llevasen negros á Indias\". Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-15. PA167, the opening of Libro IV with its résumé, whose last line is \"Concilio mejicano.—Españoles que condenaron el tráfico de negros y aun la esclavitud en el siglo XVI.—Casas, Mercado y Albornoz\". PA235, the Third Council of Lima (session 2, cap. 36) forbidding the separation of enslaved spouses on the ground that the natural law of marriage is not derogated by the human law of slavery, with Saco's reading that the bishops therefore treated slavery as a purely civil institution; the account of why demand rose, including \"todos los pobladores atentos á su provecho volvian los ojos á los míseros africanos. Y no era el Gobierno el ménos interesado en este tráfico, porque de él sacaba pingües sumas para su erario\"; Las Casas admitted to the list because he \"al fin reconoció su error\"; and the opening of the quotation from Fray Tomás de Mercado's Seville book of 1587. PA236, the continuation of the Mercado quotation on manufactured titles, ambushes, the one-in-two estimate, four hundred people taken without licence or register, and five hundred embarked from Cabo Verde for New Spain of whom a hundred and twenty were dead by morning. PA237, the end of that quotation with nearly three hundred dead before Mexico, and the whole of the Albornoz passage: the fourteen years before Mercado, \"no ya el tráfico de esclavos, sino aun la misma esclavitud\", \"porque la presuncion siempre está por su libertad\", the buyer as accomplice, the women, children and those sold by hunger, the answer to the evangelisation defence, the advice he says he would give a Black man, and the italicised \"que la libertad del ánima se haya de pagar con la servidumbre del cuerpo\". PA238, the close of the quotation with Onésimo and Simon of Cyrene and the reproach about Talavera and Madrid; the statement that the work sank into oblivion \"no sólo porque el Santo Oficio prohibió su lectura y reimpresion\"; the shift of the traffic to \"asientos y contratas\"; and the footnote giving the imprint \"Arte de los Contractos, compuesto por Bartolomé de Albornoz, estudiante de Talavera. En Valencia en casa de Pedro de Huete, año de 1573.\" One limitation is recorded rather than smoothed: Saco asserts the Inquisition's prohibition of the book without naming an index, a decree or a date, and no page read here supplies one." }, { "id": "cerpa-estremadoyro-davalos-quinua-2024", "title": "Una disertación médica olvidada del siglo XVIII: la \"Memoria sobre las virtudes heroicas de la quinua\", de José Manuel Dávalos", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11654732/", "publisher": "Rafael Cerpa Estremadoyro, História, Ciências, Saúde - Manguinhos, volume 31, e2024062 (2024); DOI 10.1590/S0104-59702024000100062; PMCID PMC11654732. Open access under a Creative Commons Attribution licence", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Peer-reviewed study in a history-of-science journal, read in full on 2026-08-15 through the open-access copy at PubMed Central. It reconstructs the untitled French manuscript that José Manuel Dávalos submitted to the Société Royale de Médecine in Paris in December 1787 in support of an application for foreign membership, and Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu's report refusing it. Used here for: the birth and death dates 1758 and 1821 and the parentage (Joaquín Dávalos, a criollo of Quito; María Zamudio, a freed Black woman of Trujillo); the statement that the laws on limpieza de sangre \"excluían de manera formal a los afroamericanos\" and their descendants from universities and the medical professions in the Viceroyalty of Peru; the Montpellier training under Paul-Joseph Barthez and Antoine Gouan and the dissertation \"De morbis nonnullis Limae grassantibus ipsorumque therapia\" defended early in 1787; the claim that the decoction of quinoa seed had proved effective \"en la cura de contusiones, abscesos internos y pleuresía\"; the laudatory introduction by Mateo Esteban Quilty y Valois; the three grounds of Jussieu's refusal, including the classification as Amaranthus blitum against the Chenopodium binomial not published until 1797 and the remark that \"es difícil obtener del informe un beneficio sustancial sin que el autor proporcione una elaboración más detallada\"; and Dávalos's later statement, in his Alegato of 1810, that a memoir on chemistry had won him corresponding membership of the Paris academy. Reliability 0.85 rather than higher because the study is the single modern authority for the manuscript and its reception, and because its closing account of the refusal — that it turned on the social construction of scientific credibility rather than on the technical faults — is the author's interpretation, which this corpus cites as an interpretation and not as a finding." }, { "id": "markham-narratives-rites-laws-yncas-1873", "title": "Narratives of the Rites and Laws of the Yncas, translated from the original Spanish manuscripts and edited, with notes and an introduction, by Clements R. Markham (London, printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1873)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=W3RfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA3", "publisher": "Hakluyt Society, London", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Full-view scan of the Koninklijke Bibliotheek copy, 263 page images, no search layer; read as page scans on 2026-08-15. Title page (PR1) verified against the imprint rather than the feed: \"Narratives of the Rites and Laws of the Yncas, translated from the original Spanish manuscripts, and edited, with notes and an introduction, by Clements R. Markham, C.B., F.R.S. London: printed for the Hakluyt Society. M.DCCC.LXXIII.\" Contents (PR5): I, An Account of the Fables and Rites of the Yncas, by Christoval de Molina, p. 3; II, An Account of the Antiquities of Peru, by Juan de Santa Cruz Pachacuti-yamqui Salcamayhua, p. 67; III, a narrative of the rites of Huarochiri by Francisco de Avila, p. 123; IV, Report by Polo de Ondegardo, p. 151. Pages read - p. 3 (Molina's heading, his office as priest of the parish of Our Lady of Healing of the hospital for natives at Cuzco, the dedication to bishop Sebastian de Artaun, and his stated method of assembling aged persons who had seen and taken part in the rites in the days of Huayna Ccapac, Huascar and Manco); p. 20 (the fast from sowing until the maize is a finger's length, the yahuayra song, the sacrifice at Limapampa, the Tarpuntaes or priests of the Sun and the priests of the Thunder Chuqui Yllapa, and the opening of August, Coya-raymi, and the Situa, for which the figures of the huacas were brought to Cuzco from Quito to Chile); pp. 60-61 (the apostasy: the belief current from 1560 that an ointment made from Indian bodies had been sent for from Spain, the huacas burnt by the Christians held to have risen and divided between Pachacama and Titicaca, the preachers declaring the huacas wandering in the air thirsty and hungry, the fields sown with worms to be planted in the hearts of the Spaniards and of the Spanish sheep and horses, and the rule of return - fasting from salt, aji and coloured maize, from every Spanish thing, from the churches, the priests and their own Christian names); p. 67 (Pachacuti-yamqui's opening self-identification by name, town, parents and five ascending generations, and his boast that his great-great-grandfathers were the first chiefs to come to the tambo of Caxamarca to be baptised); p. 69 (his Creed, and the statement that the natives of Ttahuantin-suyu descend from Adam \"as well as the other nations throughout the whole world, as well white as black\", followed by his source formula - what he has heard from a child by the constant testimony of the natives); p. 70 (the Andean periodisation Purun-pacha, Ccallac-pacha, Tutayac-pacha with Markham's Quechua glosses, and the arrival of the bearded man); pp. 151-153 (Polo's opening: the two branches Hanan and Hurin Cuzco, his refusal of informants who place the origin before the flood, the dating of Inca rule at not more than 350-400 years from quipu-preserved king-lists, the four roads and the rivers, and the second thing \"taken for granted\", that the Yncas sought a colour and pretext for conquest); p. 166 (the chosen women, the ages, the distribution to the Sun, to Pacha-mama, to sacrifice and to the Ynca, the Apu-panaca's selection and the parents who could not redeem them); p. 169 (the chasqui relay at every tupu of a league and a half, two men to a hut relieved monthly, Cuzco to Quito 500 leagues out and back in twenty days, letters Cuzco to Lima in three days, fresh sea fish in two, and Polo's remark that the Spaniards themselves had used the chasquis in their wars); p. 170 (the masonry without iron, the joints, thirty thousand men, and his own inspection of the quarries). A primary witness to what a London learned society printed in 1873 and to the English words in front of its readers; a derivative witness to the sixteenth and seventeenth-century Spanish manuscripts themselves, which it prints only in Markham's translation. Claims are worded as what this volume prints and none is set above 0.9." }, { "id": "markham-introduction-rites-laws-yncas-1873", "title": "Clements R. Markham, introduction to Narratives of the Rites and Laws of the Yncas (Hakluyt Society, London, 1873), pp. v-xx", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=W3RfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR10", "publisher": "Hakluyt Society, London", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The editor's own introduction to the volume above, read as page scans on 2026-08-15. p. x - his judgement that the evidence of Molina is more reliable than Garcilaso de la Vega's because Molina \"wrote on the spot, with a full knowledge of the language, and after carefully examining the surviving priests and wise men of the old Ynca court\", and that Pachacamac occurs three times in Molina's prayers as an attribute of the deity, the term most used being Pachayachachic, \"the teacher of the universe\". p. xii - huaca as the term for the nature gods and pacarina or pacarisca for ancestral deities; two or three Colla words in the manuscripts of Molina and Salcamayhua; Molina giving Punchau, not Ynti, as the Ynca name for the sun, against Garcilaso. p. xiii - the two names Molina gives for the month of July, and the argument that Molina and Salcamayhua, both writing Ollanta-tampu where other old Spanish writers write Tampu, prove the name is not modern. p. xv - fourteen prayers of the Ynca priests given by Molina, four to the Supreme Being, two to the Sun, one for fruitful flocks, four for the Yncas, two to the other huacas and one to the earth; the warning that the Quichua words have in many instances been incorrectly transcribed and that the Spanish translations now given in English are in some cases far from literal. p. xvi - Salcamayhua written about forty years after Molina, ranked as an authority after Cieza de Leon, Polo de Ondegardo, Molina, Balboa and Garcilaso but before Spanish writers ignorant of the native language such as Zarate, Fernandez and Acosta. p. xx - Polo de Ondegardo, a lawyer who came to Peru with president Gasca, corregidor of Charcas and afterwards of Cuzco, who studied the language and laws of the Yncas in order to administer the provinces in his charge; his paper described as a rough draft or set of notes covering the principle of the Ynca conquests, the division and tenure of land, tribute, the regulations for preserving game and for forest conservancy, and pointing out how the wise legislation of the Yncas ought to be used and imitated by their conquerors; and the statement that these four papers had never been printed in the language in which they were written and were translated in 1873 for the first time. A Victorian editor with a declared enthusiasm for Ynca institutions: registered secondary, and his evaluative judgements are attributed to him rather than asserted." }, { "id": "arias-de-benavides-secretos-1567", "title": "Secretos de Chirurgia, especial de las enfermedades de Morbo galico y Lamparones y Mirrarchia, y assi mismo la manera como se curan los Indios de llagas y heridas y otras passiones en las Indias", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=YHxmAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "Francisco Fernández de Córdoba, impresor de la Magestad Real, Valladolid, 1567", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "The 1567 first edition itself, by Pedro Arias de Benavides (\"el Doctor Pedrarias de Benauides vezino y natural dela Ciudad de Toro\"). Google Books volume YHxmAAAAcAAJ, 342 pages, feed viewability view_all_pages; the copy scanned is the British Museum one, stamped on the title leaf and carrying a contemporary reader's manuscript marginalia. Read as page scans on 2026-08-15: the title leaf (scan page SL4791-PA1 — imprint, privilegio, price \"tassado a real y medio en papel\", dedication to prince don Carlos); fol. 40 (the maguey chapter — \"tiene muchos prouechos que yo experimenté, y a nadie lo quise descubrir, porque los medicos de aquella tierra no están bien con él, a causa de sus interesses y prouechos\", and \"Todos los indios cercanos a Mexico siembran alrededor de sus labranças este maguey\"); fol. 43 (the maguey steam cure for bubas, \"y yo ansi lo he hecho\", pot sealed with dough, three or four hours' boiling, the patient sweating under the vapour); the leaf carried as scan page SL4791-PA61 (the purge of the indigenous healer \"que curó al virey don Antonio de Mendoça, no le pudiendo ya curar los medicos\", brought fourteen leagues, mirarchia); fol. 123 (chapter \"De cabeça\" — the head wound in which the medullary substance rose to the level of the cranium, treated with lentil flour on a silk patten). Sixteenth-century orthography, long s and abbreviations; quotations above are transcribed from the scans with contractions expanded. Registered primary as the imprint, and used only for what its own leaves say, never for whether the practices worked." }, { "id": "mendez-villanueva-2026-arias-de-benavides", "title": "Overcoming medical scholasticism in New Spain: experience and indigenous knowledge in Arias de Benavides' treatment of syphilis", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13009066/", "publisher": "History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 48(2):20, Springer, 2026", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Peer-reviewed article by Manuel Méndez Alonzo and Luis Alejandro Villanueva, DOI 10.1007/s40656-025-00699-x, read in full text on 2026-08-15. Supplies the biography (born El Toro, Zamora, c. 1521; crossed to the Indies between 1545 and 1550; Santo Domingo, Honduras, Guatemala and Mexico City; several years at the Hospital del Amor de Dios or de las Bubas, c. 1554-1562), the reading of the book as an argument from experience against scholastic authority, the list of indigenous remedies he recorded, and — cited here for the counterpoints — the limits the authors themselves put on him: he was a surgeon without the theoretical tools to contest university physicians, he argued by anecdote, and his book was far less read than Hernández or Monardes. The authors' English rendering of the fol. 40 maguey passage differs from the 1567 leaf read for this object; where the two diverge the imprint is followed and the divergence is stated in the claim." }, { "id": "trueta-1939-bombing-casualties-rsm", "title": "The Organization of Hospital Services for Casualties due to the Bombing of Cities, Based on Experience Gained in Barcelona — with Special Reference to the Classification of Casualties", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1997848/", "publisher": "Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 33(1):13-23 (Section of Orthopaedics), November 1939", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Josep Trueta's own paper, read to the Section of Orthopaedics of the Royal Society of Medicine within months of his arrival in England. Read on 2026-08-15 on the PMC record, where the twelve-point abstract is machine readable and the body (pp. 13-23) is served as page images only; every claim bound to this source is taken from the abstract, and the object says so. Registered primary as a period document authored by the subject: it is evidence of what he told British surgeons in 1939, not an independent test of whether the system worked." }, { "id": "coni-2002-medicine-spanish-civil-war", "title": "Medicine and the Spanish Civil War", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1279488/", "publisher": "Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 95(3):147-150, 2002", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Review article by Nicholas Coni, read in full text on 2026-08-15. Source for the four principles of Trueta's treatment of compound fractures, the series of 1,073 patients with six deaths and 976 good results, the hospitales de sangre and triage chain, Durán Jordá's donor register, and — quoted in the object — the statement that Trueta's work drew \"considerable controversy including a question mark over the originality of his work\". A short review in a general medical journal rather than a specialist history; reliability set accordingly." }, { "id": "martinez-murillo-2026-closed-method", "title": "'Opening' the closed method: military-civilian exchanges and transatlantic circulations in Manuel Bastos' early work on compound fractures (1909-24)", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13311342/", "publisher": "Medical History 70(3):405-428, Cambridge University Press, 2026", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "Peer-reviewed article by Francisco Javier Martínez and Carlos Murillo-Arribas, DOI 10.1017/mdh.2026.10060, read in full text on 2026-08-15. The anchor for Manuel Bastos Ansart (1887-1973): Morocco 1909-15, the fracture centre at the Málaga base hospital in the Rif war, the Instituto Rubio and Adolfo López-Durán, the October 1924 Tribuna Médica Española article on some fifty open humerus fractures, the Argentine surgeon Pedro Chutró as the conduit between Paris, New York, Madrid and Buenos Aires, and the Seville congress of 1924. Also the source for the article's own qualifications: that the closed method had no single inventor but \"parallel versions\" circulating and changing, that Bastos probably worked independently of Winnett Orr rather than before him in any decisive sense, and that Spanish historiography's \"Orr-Bastos-Trueta\" label has rested on superficial readings of Bastos." }, { "id": "montemayor-recopilacion-mandamientos-1677", "title": "Recopilacion de algunos mandamientos y ordenanzas del gobierno de esta Nueva España, hechas por los Exmôs. Señores Vireyes y Gobernadores de ella", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=MzFAAAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1-PP1", "publisher": "Formada y dispuesta por el Dr. Don Juan Francisco de Montemayor y Cordova de Cuenca, oydor de la Real Audiencia y Chancillería que reside en la Ciudad de México, de orden del Illmô. y Exmô. Señor Don Fr. Payo Enriquez de Rivera, virey de Nueva España, año de 1677; con licencia, reimpresa en México por Don Felipe de Zúñiga y Ontiveros, calle del Espíritu Santo, año de 1787. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-15", "notes": "A distinct work bound with, and digitised inside, the same Google Books volume as belena-recopilacion-sumaria-1787-autos: it occupies reading area RA1 of volume id MzFAAAAAcAAJ, where Beleña's numbered abstracts occupy RA2. The title page was opened and read at RA1-PP1 on 2026-08-15 and gives the wording above — an oidor's compilation of the standing orders and ordinances of the viceroys of New Spain, made by order of viceroy Fr. Payo Enríquez de Rivera in 1677 and reprinted by Zúñiga y Ontiveros in 1787. Reliability is set below the tier for the same reason as the Beleña tomes: what is printed is a compiler's arrangement of official texts, each article carrying its originating ordinance and date in the margin, and not the originals themselves. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-15: RA1-PA5 (the \"Bastimentos\" heading with its margin \"Ordenanza de 17 de Agosto de 1619, cap. 1\" — the goods shops and taverns may sell \"todo con postura, medida y peso\" — and cap. 2 on Spanish fruit dealers; also the \"Aguardiente\" and \"Armas\" articles on the same page); RA1-PA6 (the end of cap. 2 with the named plazas, the ten-league rule and the certificate of provenance; cap. 3, the free sale by Indians without postura and the anti-frontman condition; cap. 4, the noon rule for shopkeepers and its penalties; the opening of cap. 5 on the postura of green fruit); RA1-PA7 (cap. 5 and cap. 6 — the weekly, monthly and three-monthly posturas, the board at the pillar of the Diputación and the corner of the plaza del Volador, the uniform bread price, the maize rule against resale, the \"ganancia moderada\" standard and the escribano's twenty-peso penalty); RA1-PA8 (the forfeiture and banishment ladder for breaking tasa, weight, measure or postura; cap. 7, no night visits without prior denunciation; cap. 8, the escribano's fees limited to the Arancel Real kept publicly readable; cap. 9, the hundred lashes for those who insert themselves among the Indian sellers and the duty of the amparadores and alguaciles to protect them). RA1-PA3 and RA1-PA10 were also fetched and are not cited here." }, { "id": "alegre-historia-compania-jesus-t2-1842", "title": "Historia de la Compañía de Jesús en Nueva-España, tomo II — the chapters on the alzamiento de los negros of 1609 and the origin of the pueblo de San Lorenzo", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=nUPpcsIQUP8C&pg=PA10", "publisher": "Francisco Javier Alegre, written before the expulsion of 1767; México, imprenta de J. M. Lara, 1842. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "An eighteenth-century Jesuit history of the province of New Spain, printed for the first time at Mexico in 1841-42. It is registered secondary and not primary because Alegre wrote a century and a half after the events used here; its authority for 1609 is that it prints, at length and in the first person, the relación of Fr. Juan Laurencio, one of the two Jesuits who marched with the expedition, and closes the quotation with \"Hasta aquí la relacion del padre Juan Laurencio\". Laurencio's text is therefore read at one remove, through Alegre's setting of it, and the object that cites this source says so. Reliability is set at 0.75 for two stated reasons: Alegre is an interested witness for the conduct of his own order, and the 1842 edition carries editorial footnotes by a nineteenth-century hand that are not Alegre's and are cited as such where used. Volume metadata (author, imprint, 1842, 500 pages) taken from the Google Books volume feed entry; the title page was not opened. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-16: PA10, the marginal heading \"Alzamiento de los negros / Año de 1609\", the viceroy Luis de Velasco's commission to D. Pedro González de Herrera, the request to the vice-provincial Martín Peláez for chaplains, the naming of the fathers Juan Laurencio and Juan Pérez, and Laurencio's opening sentence \"Salimos á nuestra empresa á 26 de enero de 1609\" with the bando forbidding any black person to leave the city who might carry word of the march; PA15, the division of labour in the maroon town, the white flag and the signed cédula of general pardon, the felling of the maroons' fields, the close of Laurencio's relación and his recall by the provincial Rodrigo de Cabredo; PA16, the marginal heading \"Capitulan los negros con el gobierno vireinal\", the full terms proposed to the viceroy, the viceroy's concession of the site of the pueblo de S. Lorenzo \"á pocas leguas de la villa de Córdova, que se fundó despues por los años de 1618\", the attachment of the town in spiritual matters to the beneficiado of the partido de la Punta, and the editor's footnote \"Establecidos allí los negros acabaron con los indios, de quienes son enemigos naturales.\" Pages PA11 to PA14 and PA17 were located by full-text search and not opened." }, { "id": "apendice-diccionario-universal-1856-negros", "title": "The article NEGROS (CONJURACIONES DE LOS) in the Apéndice al Diccionario universal de historia y de geografía, colección de artículos relativos á la República Mexicana, tomo III", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=7dJAAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA19", "publisher": "Signed M. O. Y B. at its close, that is Manuel Orozco y Berra; recogidos y coordinados por el Lic. D. Manuel Orozco y Berra; México, imprenta de J. M. Andrade y F. Escalante, calle de Cadena número 13, 1856, tomo III, último de la obra. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "A Mexican scholarly compilation of 1856 — the last tome of the Mexican appendix to the Diccionario universal, whose contributors are named on the title page and are the leading Mexican historians of the generation. Reliability is set at 0.70, below the 0.75 the corpus gives the 1855 tomo I of the same work, for one specific reason: this article is not independent of the corpus's other source on the same events. Its narrative of the 1609 campaign and its wording of the maroons' terms follow Alegre's chapter closely, at points almost verbatim, and it names no archival source of its own. Where the two agree, the agreement is not corroboration, and the object that cites both says so. It carries material Alegre does not: the composition of the expedition, the 1546 conspiracy, and the executions of 1612. Title page read at PP7; PP3 is a marbled endpaper and PP4 is blank. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-16: PA19, the opening of the article, the statement that slaves were brought in to serve in place of the Indians in the heavy work of the fields and the mines, the 1546 conspiracy and the public hangings that followed it, the rumoured conjuration of Epiphany 1609 and the whippings ordered by Luis de Velasco, the statement that slaves were treated in the colony \"dura y cruelmente, segun lo exigian las creencias y las costumbres de la época\", and the flight into the mountains running from the Cofre de Perote to the Pico de Orizaba; PA20, the composition of the expedition (100 soldiers, an equal number of adventurers and 150 Indian archers under D. Pedro González de Herrera, vecino de Puebla, joined by some 200 more Spaniards and gentes de las castas), the departure of 26 January and the arrival of 20 February, the captured Spaniard sent back as messenger and Yanga's words to him, the maroons' letter quoted in direct speech including \"que se habian retirado á aquel lugar por libertarse de la crueldad y de la perfidia de los españoles, que sin algun derecho pretendian ser dueños de su libertad\", and the description of Yanga as \"bran de nacion\", aged, thirty years escaped, reserving civil rule to himself and giving command of the arms to Francisco de la Matosa, a black man of Angola; PA21, the storming of the palisades, the village of 70 or 80 huts with its church and lookout tree and its fields of plantains, fruit trees, maize, frijol, potatoes, cotton and tobacco nine months after settlement, the sack and burning and the hospital the Spaniards made there, the white flag and the pardon refused, Yanga's letter to the viceroy and the terms, Velasco's concession \"en obvio de mayores males y de los muchos gastos que se erogaban\", the naming of the town as San Lorenzo de los Negros, the sentence on the town's \"continua y sorda guerra contra los indios\", and the 1612 panic in Mexico City ending in twenty-nine men and seven women hanged in the plaza at Easter, their bodies quartered and nailed along the roads." }, { "id": "pimentel-cuadro-descriptivo-1862", "title": "Cuadro descriptivo y comparativo de las lenguas indígenas de México (1862) — the chapters EL TOTONACO and EL MATLATZINCA Ó PIRINDA", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=tnl9gHdM3NIC&pg=PA227", "publisher": "Francisco Pimentel, conde de Heras; México, Andrade y Escalante, 1862, 612 pages. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "A comparative description of the indigenous languages of Mexico, each chapter written from the colonial artes and vocabularios the author could obtain, with the source named at the head of the chapter and quoted with page references. Reliability is set at 0.80, higher than the corpus gives a bibliographer, because Pimentel worked from the books themselves and prints the page number of every statement he takes from them, including the ones he uses to convict his source of contradicting itself; it is set below 0.9 because he is a nineteenth-century Mexican liberal writing a classificatory work with a thesis, and because the ethnographic asides he adds around the grammar (the Totonac sacrifice of three children every three years, for instance) are not sourced in his text and are reported by this corpus as his statements rather than as fact. Volume metadata (author, imprint, 1862, 612 pages) taken from the Google Books volume feed entry; the title page was not opened, and no tomo number is asserted here. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-16: PA227, the etymology of Totonaco taken from Francisco Domínguez's Doctrina de Naolingo, the naming of the book Pimentel used (\"el Arte por D. José Zambrano Bonilla, con una doctrina en la lengua de Naolingo, por D. Francisco Dominguez. (México, 1752.)\"), his verdict that the Arte \"está lleno de defectos en el método y en las explicaciones\" because no one strove as its author did to imitate Latin grammar, his remark on the title \"conforme al de Antonio de Nebrija\" as though that grammarian \"hubiera formado un molde para todas las lenguas\", his judgement that the work nonetheless \"contiene las reglas bastantes para conocer el idioma\" and \"me parece apreciable\", and Zambrano's own statement that he knew the artes of Pinelo and Zurita and did not follow them; PA228, the further list of Totonac works (Clavijero on Andrés de Olmos and Cristóbal Díaz de Anaya, a grammar by Toral, another by the cura Eugenio Romero, a Catecismo y Confesionario by Antonio Santoyo, an Arte y Vocabulario by Fr. Francisco Tobar), the note that Totonac is included in the Mithridates, the Totonac alphabet as Pimentel gives it, and Zambrano's articulatory description of lh and tz quoted verbatim; PA263, the notes to the Totonac chapter, in which Pimentel sets Zambrano's statements about b, d, f, r, ñ, ll, h, g, j, s and v against each other with the page of each (págs. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 127) and records that the list of homonyms in the work exceeds one hundred and thirty; PA497, the section title page EL MATLATZINCA Ó PIRINDA; PA499, the preliminary notices — the language formerly spoken in the valley of Toluca and by then only at Charo in Michoacán, Clavijero quoted on the matlatzincas of the valley of Toluca subdued by Axayacatl, and Basalenque's account of the migration to Michoacán and of the name pirindas, \"los de en medio\" in Tarascan; PA500, the etymology of Matlatzinco as \"lugarcito de las redes\", the list of the five authors who wrote in or on Matlatzinca (Acosta, Basalenque, Bautista, Castro, Guevara), and the statement of what Pimentel could actually obtain — Basalenque's Arte y Diccionario in manuscript in the museo nacional de México and Guevara's Gramática, Catecismo and Manual in manuscript in the Sociedad Mexicana de Geografía y Estadística, the latter's Arte \"trunco\", leaving Basalenque as \"mi principal guia y maestro\". PA496 was opened and is a blank verso showing show-through from the facing leaf. Pages PA221, PA233, PA234, PA238, PA241, PA264, PA278, PA279, PA363 and PA366 were located by full-text search and not opened." }, { "id": "ludewig-totonaka-1858", "title": "The TOTONAKA and TOTONACA entries in The Literature of American Aboriginal Languages", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=BA9bAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA190", "publisher": "Hermann E. Ludewig, with additions and corrections by Wm. W. Turner, edited by Nicolas Trübner; London, Trübner and Co., 1858. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The Totonac pages of the same 1858 bibliography the corpus already registers under ludewig-american-aboriginal-languages-1858; registered separately so that the pages read for this subject, and the reliability judgement that applies to them, are recorded with the claims that rest on them rather than appended to another object's entry. The general caution stated there applies here too: the compiler worked at second hand from catalogues and correspondence, died in December 1856 with only 172 pages printed off, and the volume was completed by others. Its value for this subject is that it is independent of any Spanish or Mexican account — compiled in New York, completed and printed in London — and that it transcribes the title page of the 1752 Puebla imprint at length. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-16: PA190, the TOTONAKA headnote on the districts of Zacatlán in Puebla and the state of Veracruz and the four dialects Tatiquilhati, Chacahuaxti, Ypapana and Tatimolo; the list of words and vocabularies (Hervás, the Mithridates, Vater, Balbi, the Nouvelles Annales des Voyages); the N.B. that Clavigero says Andreas de Olmos and Cristoval Diaz de Anaya wrote grammars and vocabularies of Totonaka; the transcription of the title of \"Arte de Lengua Totonaca, conforme el Arte de Antonio Nebrija. Compuesto por D. Joseph Zambrano Bonilla, Cura beneficiado\", its dedication to the archbishop-bishop Domingo Pantaleón Álvarez de Abreu, the added doctrina of the Lengua Naolingo by the Lic. D. Francisco Dominguez, cura de Xalpam de los Angelos, and the imprint \"Puebla, 1752, 8vo, pp. 134, 79\"; the parenthesis that \"Naolingo is the dialect generally called Tatimolo\"; and the manuscript grammars of Eugenio Romero, of Fr. Francisco Toral (bishop of Yucatán, died in Mexico 1571) and of Cristobal Diaz Anaya, cura of Olintla; PA242, the separate TOTONACA section listing Andreas de Olmoz, Grammatica et Lexicon Linguæ Mexicanæ, Totonaquæ et Huastecæ, Mexico, 1560, 2 vols. 4to, with the remark that both Barcia-Pinelo and Clavigero mention this book as printed, and Eugenio Romero's Arte, mentioned by Barcia-Pinelo. Zambrano Bonilla does not appear in the PA242 section, which is why both pages are recorded here." }, { "id": "beristain-basalenque-y-bautista", "title": "The entries BASALENQUE (Fr. Diego) and BAUTISTA (Fr. Gerónimo) in the Biblioteca Hispano-Americana Septentrional, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=zf1Zmuyz58UC&pg=PA160", "publisher": "José Mariano Beristáin de Souza (1816); facsimile edition, Instituto de Estudios y Documentos Históricos A. C., Biblioteca del Claustro, Serie Facsimilar 1, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, 1980. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Two entries from the same 1816 bibliography of the writers of New Spain the corpus registers under beristain-biblioteca-hispanoamericana-t1, read from the 1980 UNAM photographic facsimile, so the pages are the 1816 type; registered separately so that the pages read for this subject stand with the claims that rest on them. The caution recorded on the other entry holds: Beristáin's notices are short, frequently silent about their evidence, and are corrected on points of fact by later bibliographers, which is also why the corpus keeps him — he is the earlier and independent witness. His notice of Basalenque is frankly hagiographic in its closing lines (the body found incorrupt a year after burial), and nothing from that register is used in the claims. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-16: PA160, the Basalenque entry — his election as provincial in 1623, his retirement already sexagenarian to the convent of Charo where \"con trabajo ímprobo y aplicación extraordinaria no solamente aprendió la dificil lengua Matlacinga hasta predicar en ella á los indios, sino que juntando á los mas habiles de estos, compuso Arte y Diccionario de la misma\", his death at 74 on 12 December 1651, the two epitaphs, the list of the languages he knew (\"Latina, Italiana, Mégicana, Pirinda, Matlacinga, Griega y Hebrea\"), the printed Historia de la Provincia de S. Nicolás Tolentino de Michoacán (México, Calderón, 1673) and the opening of the list of manuscripts kept in the library of Charo, moved to Valladolid; PA161, the end of that manuscript list, which includes \"Arte de la Lengua Tarasca ó Pirinda\", \"Arte y vocabulario de la Lengua Matlacinga\", \"Sermones en dicha Lengua\" and \"Catecismo en la misma y Manual de Párrocos de Michoacan\", and the entry BAUTISTA (Fr. Gerónimo), Franciscan of the province of the Santo Evangelio, resident at the Colegio de Tlatelolco in 1562, who on 2 August of that year finished his Sermones en Lengua Matlacinga." }, { "id": "alsedo-compendio-guayaquil-1741", "title": "Compendio historico de la provincia, partidos, ciudades, astilleros, rios, y puerto de Guayaquil en las costas de la Mar del Sur", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=9XUDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Don Dionysio de Alsedo y Herrera, president of the Real Audiencia de Quito; con licencia, en Madrid, por Manuel Fernandez, impressor de la Reverenda Camara Apostolica, 1741. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The 1741 first edition, read as page scans on 2026-08-16. Reliability is set below the tier because the book is a governor's memorial dedicated to the king in the Council of the Indies and argues the worth of the province he had administered, so its superlatives are advocacy. Pages opened and read: PP7, the title page, with the full title naming the astilleros, the dedication \"AL REY NUESTRO SEÑOR EN SU REAL, Y SUPREMO CONSEJO DE LAS INDIAS\", the author's styling \"Presidente, que fuè de la Real Audiencia de Quito, Governador, y Capitan General de las Provincias de su Distrito\", and the imprint \"En MADRID: Por MANUEL FERNANDEZ … Año de M.DCC.XLI\"; PA18, the close of capítulo III and the heading of capítulo IV, \"DE LA DESCRIPCION DE LOS Astilleros: Calidad incorruptible, y nombres de las Maderas: Computo, y valor de las que se sacan para las fabricas de Lima en cada un año: Numero de los Baxeles construidos en ellos … y su larga duracion, y motivos porque se pierden tantos en la Mar del Sur\"; PA19 (the yards by the estero de la Atarazana, the claim of superiority over \"todos los demàs de ambas Americas, y à los mas cèlebres de la Europa\", the list of some thirty timbers, and the properties of the guachapelí); PA20 (guachapelí mulato, caulking with estopa de coco, tar and pitch from the ports of Guatemala, and the greased-channel launch); PA21 (the launch as a civic festival, \"el unico Astillero de la Mar del Sur\", masts of palo de María and laurel against \"los Pinos del Norte\"); PA22 (eighteen sticks of 108 geometric feet from the ceja of Bulubulú, jarcia of Chilean henequen and of cabuya twisted by the Indians of Jipijapa, sails of local cotton, hulls lasting seventy and sixty years); PA23 (the crews \"de Indios, Negros, y Mulatos\" blamed for the losses, and the firewood carried \"con un esclavo\"); PA24 (the municipal custom that gives the offcuts to the city, and the admission that in eight years the yards' utility could not be reduced \"no solo à numero cierto, sino aun à prudente computo estimativo\"); PA25 (176 vessels built to 1736 in three keel-length bands of 47, 32 and 97, the annual 24,000 pesos of timber to Lima and Callao, the 32,800 pesos of 1735 and the 8,800 pesos for the Armada del Sur priced by Viceroy Castelfuerte); PA26 (that pricing \"con menos aprovechamiento de los interessados en el corte de la madera, y en los fletes de la conducion\")." }, { "id": "morga-philippine-islands-1868", "title": "The Philippine Islands, Moluccas, Siam, Cambodia, Japan, and China, at the Close of the Sixteenth Century, by Antonio de Morga", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=gIFWAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Mexico, 1609); translated from the Spanish, with notes and a preface, by the Hon. Henry E. J. Stanley; London, printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1868. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Morga's own narrative, but at two removes: what is read here is an English translation of 1868, and Morga was lieutenant-governor and then oidor of the Audiencia of Manila during the events he relates, with his own conduct at stake, so reliability is set well below the tier. Pages opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-16: PP7, the title page (\"TRANSLATED FROM THE SPANISH, With Notes and a Preface … BY THE HON. HENRY E. J. STANLEY. LONDON: PRINTED FOR THE HAKLUYT SOCIETY. M.DCCC.LXVIII\"); PA233, on the months before the Sangley rising of 1603 — Spaniards persecuting the Sangleys \"by word and deed\", depriving them of their property, \"calling them dogs of traitors\" and saying they would kill them all first, and Morga's judgment that \"this alone was sufficient motive for the Chinese to find themselves in the necessity of doing what they had not thought of doing\"; PA241, on the aftermath — \"as there were no Sangleys, who exercised various arts, and brought all the provisions, neither was any food to be found to eat, nor shoes to wear, not even for very excessive prices\", the fear that an armament would come from China \"to avenge the death of the Sangleys\", and the letters sent to Canton and Chincheo \"giving an account of the outbreak of the Chinese, which obliged the Spaniards to kill them\"; PA350, describing the Parián as \"a large closed silk-market, with many streets, at a considerable distance from the city walls\", with its own commandant, court and prison, the overflow settlements of Baybay and Minondoc under the Dominicans, \"two monasteries … and a good hospital for the cure of Sangleys\", the quarter of some five hundred baptised Sangleys, the forcing of those without trades back onto the returning China ships \"with much force and pressure\", and Morga's own contempt for the converts as \"despicable people, restless and vicious\"." }, { "id": "martini-spanish-influenza-1918-lesson", "title": "The Spanish Influenza Pandemic: a lesson from history 100 years after 1918", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6477554/", "publisher": "Martini M, Gazzaniga V, Bragazzi NL, Barberis I; Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene 60(1):E64-E67, 2019; doi 10.15167/2421-4248/jpmh2019.60.1.1205; open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "A centenary review by medical historians. Read 2026-08-16 for the section headed \"The silence of the press\", which states verbatim: \"As Spain was neutral in the First World War, newspapers there were free to report the devastating effects that the 1918 pandemic virus was having in that country. Thus, it was generally perceived that the pandemic had originated in Spain, and the infection was incorrectly dubbed 'Spanish flu'. During the fall of 1918, the front pages of Spanish newspapers were filled with the names of those who had died of the pandemic in the country.\" The same article opens its narrative not in Spain but at a United States army camp — \"On March 4, 1918, Albert Gitchel, a cook at Camp Fuston in Kansas, was afflicted by coughing, fever and headaches\" (the camp is printed \"Fuston\") — and gives the global toll as \"more than 50 million people\" dead and \"more than 500 million infections worldwide\". A narrative review, not a primary study: registered secondary and cited only for the naming mechanism, the Kansas case as the article tells it, and the global figure." }, { "id": "chowell-spain-1918-excess-mortality-2014", "title": "Spatial-temporal excess mortality patterns of the 1918-1919 influenza pandemic in Spain", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4094406/", "publisher": "Chowell G, Erkoreka A, Viboud C, Echeverri-Dávila B; BMC Infectious Diseases 14:371, 2014; doi 10.1186/1471-2334-14-371; open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Quantitative reconstruction of Spanish excess mortality from monthly vital-statistics series, by province. Read 2026-08-16. Background, verbatim: \"The pandemic was coined 'Spanish Influenza' because the Spanish press widely publicized the outbreak in its early stages, as significant increases in respiratory mortality were reported in several Spanish provinces during May-June 1918. In contrast, the rest of Europe censored all news relating to the pandemic for fear of a decline in troop morale in the midst of World War I.\" Results, verbatim: \"Cumulative excess deaths from May 1918 to April 1919 were estimated at 194,960 (95.1 per 10,000) and 237,600 (115.9 per 10,000) for Spain based on respiratory and all-cause mortality, respectively.\" Three waves are distinguished: spring-summer 1918, autumn 1918 and winter 1919." }, { "id": "cilek-madrid-1918-excess-mortality-2018", "title": "Age-Specific Excess Mortality Patterns During the 1918-1920 Influenza Pandemic in Madrid, Spain", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6454514/", "publisher": "Cilek L, Chowell G, Ramiro Fariñas D; American Journal of Epidemiology 187(12):2511-2523, 2018; doi 10.1093/aje/kwy171; open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Age-specific excess-mortality study built on Madrid's individual death records. Read 2026-08-16. States that \"the name Spanish flu comes from the first news reports of influenza-like-illness in Madrid in the late spring of 1918\" and that the pandemic \"gained its nickname because the first mentions of the virus were published in Spain, where the press faced no censorship during World War I, owing to the country's neutrality\". Its three waves for Madrid carry excess all-cause mortality of 19.42 (spring 1918), 33.50 (autumn-winter 1918/19) and 33.86 (winter 1919/20) per 10,000 persons, about 6,500 excess deaths in total for the city." }, { "id": "almudever-prensa-gripe-1918-2025", "title": "El impacto demográfico de la epidemia de gripe de 1918 a través de la prensa española", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12160415/", "publisher": "Almudéver Campo L, Camaño Puig RE; Revista Española de Salud Pública 99:e202506027, 2025; open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "A press study rather than an epidemiological one: 3,601 newspaper issues mentioning the influenza across ten Spanish titles (ABC, El Heraldo de Madrid, La Vanguardia and others) for 1918-1920, read 2026-08-16. Finds that the coverage tracks the actual epidemic waves and that the press therefore complements incomplete official mortality records; ABC carried the most mortality reporting. Cites national death estimates ranging from about 143,930 to 260,000, and 182,865 deaths across 1918-1920 with 137,148 in the October 1918 wave. Registered secondary; the wide spread between those estimates is itself why the object states the Spanish toll as a range." }, { "id": "juan-bautista-prologo-sermonario-1606-icazbalceta", "title": "Prologo del Sermonario en lengua mexicana de Fr. Juan Bautista (Mexico, Diego Lopez Davalos, 1606), reprinted entire in Joaquin Garcia Icazbalceta, Bibliografia mexicana del siglo XVI, pp. 360-363", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=cr0TAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA360", "publisher": "Fr. Juan Bautista, O.F.M. (b. 1555, d. before 1613), province of the Santo Evangelio, New Spain; prologue printed at Mexico by Diego Lopez Davalos, 1606. Transcribed in full by Joaquin Garcia Icazbalceta in Bibliografia mexicana del siglo XVI, Mexico, Libreria de Andrade y Morales, Sucesores, 1886, pp. 360-363. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id cr0TAAAAYAAJ)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-16: pp. 360-363, the whole of the prologue as Icazbalceta prints it, together with p. 360 col. 2 where he explains why he copies it (\"porque contiene noticias muy curiosas, y el libro en que se encuentra es ya sumamente raro\"). The prologue is the passage in which the author names, one by one and with biographical detail, the Nahua scholars who worked on his books: Hernando de Ribas of Tetzcuco, don Juan Berardo of Huexotzinco, Diego Adriano of Tlatelolco, don Francisco Bautista de Contreras of Quauhnahuac, Esteban Bravo of Tetzcuco, don Antonio Valeriano of Azcaputzalco, Pedro de Gante of Tlatelolco and Agustin de la Fuente of Santiago Tlatelolco. Registered SECONDARY and not primary although the text itself is of 1606: what was opened is Icazbalceta's 1886 transcription, not the sheets of Diego Lopez Davalos, and no copy of the 1606 Sermonario was reachable from this container. The transcription is silently modernised in spelling and accentuation, as Icazbalceta's practice elsewhere in the volume shows; wordings quoted from it are therefore attributed to the 1886 printing. The prologue is also an interested document — the author is accounting for help he received, in a book he is publishing under his own name." }, { "id": "herrera-descripcion-indias-ocidentales-1725", "title": "Descripcion de las Islas, y Tierra-firme de el Mar Occeano, que llaman Indias Occidentales, de Antonio de Herrera, Coronista Maior de las Indias, y Coronista de Castilla", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ThKz_QuxlGoC&pg=PP41", "publisher": "Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas; first published Madrid, 1601, as the geographical prologue to the Historia general. This copy: En Madrid, en la Oficina Real de Nicolás Rodríguez Franco, Año de 1725. Universidad Complutense de Madrid copy, full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The separately paginated Descripción — the crown chronicler's systematic geography of the Indies, with its engraved tablas — read as page scans on 2026-08-16. Registered secondary rather than primary on the same reasoning already applied on main to herrera-decadas-t1-1728: the copy opened is an eighteenth-century reprint, not the 1601 sheets, and its preliminaries are the work of the 1725 house rather than of Herrera. Pages opened and read: PP1, the engraved title page, \"DESCRIPCION DE LAS INDIAS OCIDENTALES DE ANTONIO DE HERRERA CORONISTA MAYOR DE SU MAG.D DE LAS INDIAS, Y SU CORONISTA DE CASTILLA. Al Rey Nro. Señor\", with the arms of Castile and León at centre, a globe at head lettered America, Peru, Brasil and Tierra Austral, eight compartments of Mexica deities each captioned in the plate (\"el Dios de los Finados\", \"Huitzilopuchtli Dios de Mexico\", \"el dios de las aguas\", \"el dios del Viento\", \"el dios de los truenes\", \"el dios del vino\", \"Acamapich primero Rey de Mexico\", \"Forma de los templos de los yndios de Nueva España\"), the author's portrait medallion \"Ant.o de Herrera Coro.ta de su Mag.d Natural de la Villa de Cuellar\", and the imprint \"EN MADRID EN LA OFICINA REAL de Nicolas Rodriguez Franco, Año de 1725\"; PP5, a leaf of the 1725 dedicatoria to the king (\"el dichoso Imperio Español\", \"estas gloriosas Conquistas\", the Latin tag \"Quod regnas, minus est, quam quod regnare mereris\"); PP20, a leaf of the 1725 prologue, which defends Herrera against the charge of malice, cites Solís lib. I cap. 13, and states of a contradiction found between Decada V lib. VI cap. I and cap. VIII on who went with Pedro de Alvarado to Peru that \"lo dejamos como lo hallamos impreso, porque no sabemos què efectos havrà producido en los interesados esta confusion\"; PP41, page 1, the head-title and CAPITULO I \"De la Demarcacion, i division de las Indias Occidentales\", with the opening measurement of the globe and the marginal note \"Los Españoles han hecho ventaja à las otras Naciones, en la Navegacion de los Navios de Alto bordo\"; PA2 and PA3, the two halves of the folding Tabla 2 lettered \"DESCRIPCION DE LAS YNDIAS DEL NORTE\", carrying a graticule, the tropics, and the seats of the Audiencias de la Nueva Galizia, de la Nueva España, de Guatimala and de la Española marked with dotted district boundaries; PA5, page 5, the close of the chapter on the navigations and CAP. IV \"De las Indias del Norte\", including the cue \"Aqui entra la segunda Tabla\"; PA66, page 66, the ordered account of the nine audiencias. Searched with jscmd=SearchWithinVolume, which answers on this volume." }, { "id": "eden-decades-newe-worlde-arber-1895", "title": "The First Three English Books on America [?1511]-1555 A.D. — Section I, Pietro Martire, The Decades of the newe worlde or west India, translated by Richard Eden (London, 1555)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=VHoKAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA61", "publisher": "Edited by Edward Arber; Birmingham, printed for private circulation, issue of 1895. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "A nineteenth-century scholarly reprint of Richard Eden's 1555 English version of Pedro Mártir de Anglería's Decades, read as page scans on 2026-08-16. Tiered secondary, and the tier is doing real work here: the text is at two removes from the author — Eden translating Anglería's Latin in 1555, Arber resetting Eden in the nineteenth century — so every wording quoted from it is attributed to this printing and not to Anglería's pen. Arber's own editorial matter (bracketed headnotes, dates) is his and is marked as such below. Pages opened and read: PA50, a leaf of Eden's own \"Preface to the Reader\", carrying the House of the Contractes of India at Seville, the counsayl for the Indies, the claim that the Spaniards \"haue and yet doo in maner dayly sende from thense into Spayne such monumentes as are most certeyne testimonies of theyr doynge\", and the apologia beginning \"Theyr bondage is suche as is much rather to be desired then theyr former libertie\"; PA61, the section leaf, \"[The Third English book on America, Which is also THE FIRST ENGLISH COLLECTION OF VOYAGES, TRAFFICS, & DISCOVERIES.] The Decades of the newe worlde or west India, etc. SECTION I. Pietro Martire\", with Arber's dating of the First Decade (first printed 1511), the Second and Third (first printed 1516) and \"Of the new found islands\" (first printed 1521); PA63, the opening of the dedicatory epistle \"TO THE MOSTE NOBLE PRINCE AND CATHOLIKE KYNGE, CHARLES, PETER MARTYR OF ANGLERIA WYSHETH PERPETUALL FELICITIE\", under Arber's headnote dating that dedication to the enlarged edition finished at Alcalá on 9 November 1516; PA172, page 172 of the Third Decade, the passage headed in the margin \"By what meanes the people of the Iland are gretly consumed\". Searched with jscmd=SearchWithinVolume, which answers on this volume." }, { "id": "quiros-regiones-austriales-1876", "title": "Historia del descubrimiento de las regiones Austriales hecho por el general Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=VvRoAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA122", "publisher": "Pedro Fernández de Quirós and his party; the text first published by Justo Zaragoza, Madrid, M. G. Hernández, 1876. Full-view digitisation, Google Books, volume id VvRoAAAAcAAJ, 496 pages", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The narrative of the two Pacific voyages fitted out from Peru — Mendaña's of 1595 to the Marquesas and Santa Cruz, and Quirós's of 1605-06 to Espíritu Santo — together with royal cédulas and Quirós's first-person account of his years at court, printed from manuscript by Zaragoza in 1876. Tiered primary at reliability 0.8 rather than 0.9 for two reasons stated here rather than buried: what is printed is an editor's text established in 1876 from manuscript, no autograph being available; and the narrative is the account of one party to the quarrels it describes. It is told in the third person, calls Quirós \"el piloto mayor\" throughout and consistently gives him the prudent line, so that its evidence about the people he was in conflict with — the maese de campo of 1595 and doña Isabel Barreto above all — is testimony, not neutral record. Its value is that it is a witness who convicts his own side in writing: the murder of the chief Malope by Spanish soldiers is called an act fit for a demon rather than a man, and the excuse of treason a pretext. Read as page scans on 2026-08-16 with the signed-image chain: PA109 and PA115 (the killing of Malope, the killer put in the stocks, the arrests in the guard house), PA122-PA123 (the eclipse, the adelantado's testament naming doña Isabel governor under a royal cédula, his death on St Luke's day and burial), PA169 (the boatswain Marcos Marín on the hoarded stores and the secret merchant), PA180 (the reception of the gobernadora in the Philippines and the sick carried to the hospital), PA211 (the royal cédula to the viceroy of Peru on naming a successor to Quirós), PA218 (Quirós before the viceroy in Lima, and Fernando de Castro's opposition), PA236-PA238 (the avisos for landing parties), PA315 (the acts of possession at Espíritu Santo, for the order of St John of God and for the order of the Holy Ghost), PA400 (the memorials to the Council of State and the ayuda de costa never fully collected)." }, { "id": "zaragoza-prologo-regiones-austriales-1876", "title": "Prólogo del editor, in Historia del descubrimiento de las regiones Austriales hecho por el general Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=VvRoAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR40", "publisher": "Justo Zaragoza; Madrid, M. G. Hernández, 1876. Full-view digitisation, Google Books, volume id VvRoAAAAcAAJ", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The editor's own long prologue to the 1876 edition, paginated in roman numerals and cited separately from the text it introduces because it is nineteenth-century commentary and not testimony. Reliability 0.7 and no higher: Zaragoza worked from the documents he prints and from the archive pieces he collected in his second volume, which makes his chronology usable, but he editorialises freely and in one direction — the dissenting crew are \"perturbadores\", the widow's authority is described as resisted because it was a woman's, and Quirós's petitions are summarised through the Council of State's own phrase about \"las impertinencias del marino\". Read as page scans on 2026-08-16: PR38-PR41 (the quarrels at Santa Cruz, the widow assuming the functions of governor, the San Jerónimo alone at Cavite on 11 February 1596, the marriage to Fernando de Castro, Acapulco on 11 December 1597), PR52-PR54 (the eighth memorial of February 1609, the memorial on Taumaco, the arbitrista memorial proposing the King visit the Indies, the publicity given to memorial sixteen, the consulta to Philip III and the cédula to the marqués de Montes Claros of 15 December 1609)." }, { "id": "gomez-ortega-transportar-plantas-1779", "title": "Instruccion sobre el modo mas seguro y económico de transportar plantas vivas por mar y tierra á los paises mas distantes, ilustrada con láminas. Añádese el método de desecar las plantas para formar herbarios. Dispuesta de orden del Rey por el Dr. D. Casimiro Gomez Ortega", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=2AMDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA11", "publisher": "Por D. Joachin Ibarra, Impresor de Cámara de S. M., Madrid, 1779. Arnold Arboretum (Harvard University) copy, digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The manual the Spanish crown printed to make live-plant transfer across the Atlantic and the Pacific work, written by the first professor of the Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid and circulated to the American dominions with a royal circular bound in front of it. Read as page scans at 1800 pixels wide on 2026-08-16. Pages opened, cited by their printed page numbers off the running heads: the title page (pid PP7, unnumbered); the royal circular (pids PP9 and PP10, unnumbered) - PP9 is a defective scan, a partly folded leaf photographed with heavy show-through from the verso, so only its upright centred italic opening was read and the mirrored matter on it was ignored; printed page I (pid PA1), the opening of the Introduccion on Spanish predecessors who naturalised foreign plants; printed page 11 (pid PA11), the statement of purpose naming José de Gálvez and the four-article plan; printed page 22 (pid PA22), articles 12 to 14 on the English origin of the case, the four packet routes and Miller's coffee seeds; printed page 23 (pid PA23), La Condamine's failed cinchona sowings and the rule for seeds in pitched boxes; printed page 30 (pid PA30), the head of Articulo Segundo and the English West India Company prize for mangosteen and breadfruit; printed page 37 (pid PA37), the head of Articulo Tercero and the cinchona entry; printed page 53 (pid PA53), the Guayana entries with names in indigenous languages; printed pages 57 and 59 (pids PA57 and PA59), the herbarium appendix. The volume has a working search index; the pid numbers and the printed page numbers agree on every page read." }, { "id": "nicolas-antonio-censura-historias-fabulosas-1742", "title": "Censura de historias fabulosas, obra posthuma de Don Nicolas Antonio, cavallero de la Orden de Santiago, canonigo de la Santa Iglesia de Sevilla, del Consejo del Señor Don Carlos Segundo, i su Fiscal en el Real Consejo de la Cruzada. Van añadidas algunas cartas del mismo autor, i de otros eruditos. Publica estas obras Don Gregorio Mayans i Siscar", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=c2bRWxnIjcoC&pg=PA1", "publisher": "En Valencia, por Antonio Bordazàr de Artàzu, Impressor del S. Oficio, i de la Il. Ciudad, año de MDCCXLII (1742). Bibliothèque S. J. Les Fontaines (Chantilly) copy, digitised by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "828 pids, full view, with a working search index. The posthumous demolition of the falsos cronicones, printed fifty-eight years after its author's death by Gregorio Mayans, who prefixed his own Vida de Don Nicolas Antonio. Read as page scans at 1800 pixels wide on 2026-08-16. Pages opened, cited by their printed page numbers off the running heads: the title page (pid PP7, unnumbered); printed page V of the Vida (pid PR5), the death of Nicolás Antonio in the spring of 1684 at sixty-seven; printed page XXIII of the Vida (pid PR23), Mayans on the thirty-one years of work, the unfinished state of the text and the section on the primacy of Toledo missing from an otherwise complete manuscript; printed page 1 (pid PA1), the opening declaration of purpose; printed page 39 (pid PA39), the Primera Proposicion attributing the chronicles to Jerónimo Román de la Higuera and the Fulda-Worms provenance story; printed page 154 (pid PA154), the argument on falsehood in sacred matter and on the ammunition the forgeries give to the enemies of Spanish history; printed page 202 (pid PA202), the rule that testimony is weighed by quality and not number and the chronological contradiction between Dextro and Julián Pérez. The long s of the type is transcribed as s throughout, and the imprint's own spelling (i for y, Chronico, falsedad) is kept in the quotations." }, { "id": "autoridades-1726-t1", "title": "Diccionario de la lengua castellana, en que se explica el verdadero sentido de las voces, su naturaleza y calidad, con las phrases o modos de hablar, los proverbios o refranes, y otras cosas convenientes al uso de la lengua — Tomo Primero, que contiene las letras A.B.", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=umz7K6TCbrEC&pg=PP9", "publisher": "Compuesto por la Real Academia Española; en Madrid, en la Imprenta de Francisco del Hierro, Impresor de la Real Academia Española, año de 1726. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The first volume of what is now called the Diccionario de autoridades, read as page scans on 2026-08-16. Registered primary: it is the sheets of the 1726 Madrid printing, and the dictionary articles, the prologue's numbered rules and the list of cited authors are the thing itself. Reliability is set below the tier because part of what the volume contains is the Academy's account of the Academy — the \"Historia de la Real Academia Española\" that opens the front matter is written by the body it narrates, printed at the king's expense and dedicated to him, so its praise of its founder is an interested witness while its dates and names are its stock in trade. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-16 — PP7, the frontispiece \"Reg. pict. Ant. Palomino inv. et delin. / Ioan. à Palomino sculp. M.ti à 1724\", with the crucible in flames carrying the Academy's motto; PP9, the title page, giving the full title, the dedication \"AL REY NUESTRO SEÑOR DON PHELIPE V. (QUE DIOS GUARDE) A CUYAS REALES EXPENSAS SE HACE esta obra\", \"COMPUESTO POR LA REAL ACADEMIA ESPAÑOLA. TOMO PRIMERO. QUE CONTIENE LAS LETRAS A.B. CON PRIVILEGIO. En Madrid: En la Imprenta de Francisco del Hierro, Impressor de la Real Académia Española. Año de 1726\"; PR1, printed page I, the opening of the Prólogo — the Academy's stated purpose, and its account of Covarrubias's Thesoro of 1611 and of Gabriel de León's 1672 reprinting with additions by Padre Benito Remigio Noidens; PR5, printed page V, numbered paragraphs 7 to 11 of the Prólogo, on etymology, on deferring the vocabulary of the liberal and mechanical arts to a separate dictionary, on which provincial words are admitted, on germanía, and on the two uses of a citation; PR9, printed page IX, the head of the \"HISTORIA DE LA REAL ACADEMIA ESPAÑOLA\", giving June 1713, the founder Don Juan Manuel Fernández Pacheco, Marqués de Villena, and the licence asked of Philip V; PR91 and PR95, printed pages LXXXXI and LXXXXV of the \"EXPLICACION DE LAS ABREVIATURAS DE LOS nombres de Autóres y obras, que ván citados en este primer Tomo\", which name the works standing behind the quotations; PA126, printed page 126, the articles AGUACATE, AGUACERO and AGUADA." }, { "id": "relacion-de-michoacan-codoin-1869", "title": "Relación de las ceremonias y ritos, población y gobierno de los indios de la provincia de Mechuacan (1541), in Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de España, tomo LIII", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=yJJCAAAAYAAJ", "publisher": "Anonymous Franciscan compiler, Michoacán, 1541; printed from the Escorial codex C.-IV.-5 by Florencio Janer, in the Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de España published by the Marqués de Miraflores and D. Miguel Salvá of the Academia de la Historia, tomo LIII, Madrid, Imprenta de la viuda de Calero, 1869. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id yJJCAAAAYAAJ), 588 pages", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "A 1541 text in a nineteenth-century transcription, which is why reliability is set below the tier: what is quoted is Janer's reading of one manuscript, the Escorial codex C.-IV.-5, printed inside a Spanish state documentary series about the history of Spain rather than in a critical edition of the Michoacán material, and no autograph is being quoted. Pages read as page scans on 2026-08-16 (Google Books signed page images, browser User-Agent required): PA3, the volume title page (\"COLECCION DE DOCUMENTOS INEDITOS PARA LA HISTORIA DE ESPAÑA, por los señores Marques de Miraflores y D. Miguel Salva, Individuos de la Academia de la Historia. TOMO LIII. MADRID. IMPRENTA DE LA VIUDA DE CALERO, Calle de Santa Isabel, núm. 26. 1869\"); PA5, the section title page (\"RELACION de las ceremonias y ritos, poblacion y gobierno de los indios de la provincia de MECHUACAN, hecha al Ilmo. Sr. D. Antonio de Mendoza, virey y gobernador de Nueva España, SACADA del codice original C.-IV.-5, existente en la BIBLIOTECA DEL ESCORIAL, por DON FLORENCIO JANER\"); PA7, the opening of the prologue addressed \"Illmo. Sr.\" and the compiler's stated wish to investigate \"entre estos nuevos cristianos qué era la vida que tenian en su infidelidad, qué era su creencia, cuáles eran sus costumbres y su gobernacion, de dónde vinieron\"; PA8, the difficulties (\"esta gente no tenia libros\", the lack of \"personas antiguas\"), the friars' other purpose (\"plantar la fe de Cristo, y pulir y adornar esta gente con nuevas costumbres\"), the viceroy asking \"dos ó tres veces que porqué no sacaba algo de la gobernacion desta gente\", the method (\"escrebir algo por relacion de los mas viejos y antiguos desta provincia\"), the purpose (\"para que V. S.a las favorezca, rigiéndolos por lo bueno que en su tiempo tenian, y apartádoles lo malo que tenian\") and the compiler's own verdict (\"apénas se verá en toda esta escriptura una virtud moral, mas cirimonias y idolatrías, y borracheras, y muertes y guerras\"); PA21, the priesthood — the chief priest called petamuti, the preachers curitiecha, the curicitacha or curipecha and the tininiecha, the note that all these priests were called cura, \"que quiere decir abuelo\", that they were married, \"y veníanles por linaje estos oficios, y sabian las historias de sus dioses é sus fiestas\"; PA126, the annual justicia general held twenty days before the feast by \"aquel sacerdote mayor llamado Petamuti\" by order of the cazonci, the catalogue of offences, the offenders called Vazcata, the sacrifice of those who had offended four times, and the evidentiary tokens (the split ears of the adulterers, the finger of the dead brought wrapped in cotton, the green maize canes)." }, { "id": "annals-of-the-cakchiquels-brinton-1885", "title": "The Annals of the Cakchiquels: the original text, with a translation, notes and introduction — the annals themselves", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=sCcTAAAAYAAJ", "publisher": "Written in Cakchiquel by members of the Xahila family of Guatemala, later sixteenth and early seventeenth century; edited and translated by Daniel G. Brinton, Brinton's Library of Aboriginal American Literature, Philadelphia, 1885. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id sCcTAAAAYAAJ), 248 pages", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Registered for the annals themselves, not for the editorial matter, which is registered separately as brinton-1885-cakchiquel-introduction. Reliability is set well below the tier for a reason the edition states on its own page 188: from that page onward Brinton prints only his English translation and omits the Cakchiquel text, \"as its contents are of little general interest\", so the paragraphs quoted here from sections 165 onward have no facing original in this volume, and the numbered section divisions are the editor's. Pages read as page scans on 2026-08-16: PA171, sections 127-130 on the pestilence (the cough, the corrupted blood, the yellow urine, the death of the chief Vakaki Ahmak, the death of the king Hunyg on the day 14 Camey and of the counselor Balam two days later, the stench, the people throwing themselves into the ravines, \"thus did we survive, being but a little child\"); PA188, the bracketed editorial note omitting the original text, and sections 165-168 (gold and silver paid before Tunatiuh, five hundred men and five hundred women demanded for the gold washings and five hundred more of each to build Pangan, \"All that, yes, all that, we ourselves witnessed, O my children\", the death of Belehe Qat while washing for gold, Don Jorge appointed \"by the sole command of Tunatiuh\" with no council or assembly, the tribute imposed even on the king); PA189, sections 169-172 (the arrival of the prince Mantunalo \"to relieve the nation from its sufferings\", the ceasing of the washing for gold and silver, of the tribute of young men and women, of the burnings alive and the hangings and \"all the various acts of violence of the Castilians and the imposts which they had forcibly laid upon us\", the roads travelled again as eight years before; then Tunatiuh's return from Castile, the killing of the Ah-tzib Caok and the hanging of the king Ahpozotzil Cahi Ymox)." }, { "id": "brinton-1885-cakchiquel-introduction", "title": "Daniel G. Brinton, preface and introduction to The Annals of the Cakchiquels (Philadelphia, 1885)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=sCcTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA53", "publisher": "D. G. Brinton, Brinton's Library of Aboriginal American Literature, Philadelphia, 1885. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id sCcTAAAAYAAJ)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The editor's own scholarship on the manuscript and its author, registered separately from the text so that claims resting on it are tiered honestly. Brinton is an interested advocate for the material he is publishing — his preface calls it \"one of the most important in aboriginal American Literature\" — and his datings are inferences from internal evidence, so confidences on claims drawn from it are held below 0.9. Pages read as page scans on 2026-08-16: PA5, the preface (the document written \"by a native who had grown to adult years before the whites penetrated to his ancestral home\", the translation made from the original text with acknowledged debts to Brasseur de Bourbourg's manuscript version, the anonymous Cakchiquel grammar Brinton edited for the American Philosophical Society in 1884); PA53, the manuscript description (a folio of 48 leaves closely written on both sides in a clear regular hand with indigo ink, incomplete, the last page closing in the middle of a sentence; entirely in Cakchiquel except a few later Spanish marginal glosses; found by Don Juan Gavarrete in 1844 when he was commissioned by Archbishop Francisco Garcia Pelaez to arrange the archives of the Convent of San Francisco of Guatemala); PA57, the authorship (the document made up of the depositions and statements of a number of members of the Xahila family; the part printed written by one who had already reached adult years at the first arrival of the Spaniards in 1524; the writer naming himself in 1582 as \"me, Francisco Ernantez Arana\", with the footnote that Cakchiquel has neither the Spanish h nor the letter d so that \"Hernandez\" becomes \"Ernantez\"; the grandfather king Hun Yg and the father Balam both dead in 1521 and the writer's marriage in 1522; and the 1560 entry Brinton quotes to show a second hand, \"Twenty days before the Feast of the Nativity my mother died ... my mother, my father, my brother and my sister died this year\")." }, { "id": "maya-chronicles-brinton-1882", "title": "The Maya Chronicles, edited by Daniel G. Brinton — the chronicles themselves", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=nx4sxDnBt_cC", "publisher": "Maya writers of Yucatan, sixteenth to eighteenth centuries; edited and translated by Daniel G. Brinton, Brinton's Library of Aboriginal American Literature Number I, D. G. Brinton, Philadelphia, 1882. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id nx4sxDnBt_cC), 296 pages", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Registered for the Maya texts printed in the volume, with the editorial apparatus registered separately as brinton-1882-maya-chronicles- introduction. Reliability below tier because the chronicles as printed are copies of copies — Brinton states on page 70 that the writers' names are generally not given because the books as we have them are all copies of older manuscripts — and because the passage used here is read in his English rendering. Pages read as page scans on 2026-08-16: PP7 and PP9, the series title page and the volume title page (\"BRINTON'S LIBRARY OF ABORIGINAL AMERICAN LITERATURE. NUMBER I. THE MAYA CHRONICLES. EDITED BY DANIEL G. BRINTON, M.D. D. G. BRINTON. PHILADELPHIA. 1882\"); PA13, Brinton listing among his sixteenth-century authorities \"the educated natives whose writings I print in this volume\" beside the Dictionary of Motul and the grammarian Gabriel de San Buenaventura; PA232, the chronicle of Chac Xulub Chen (Chicxulub) for 1552 and 1553 — the fathers settling at Sisal and coming \"to teach and sing here at Sisal ... mass vespers with the singing of the organ and flute, and the canto llano, which never before did we know here\"; and the arrival in 1553 of \"the Auditor, Don Thomas Lopez ... from Castilla, and he arrived as a messenger from our great ruler, the reigning king of Castilla, to protect us against the hand of the Spaniards here. He put a stop to our being burned by the Spaniards, he put a stop to our being bitten by dogs, he introduced the appointing of chiefs in each village by the giving of the baton; he also adjusted the tribute for the third time, the tribute introduced by the Spaniards, mantles, wax, pheasants, maize, buckets, salt, peppers, broad beans, narrow beans, jars, pots, vases\"." }, { "id": "brinton-1882-maya-chronicles-introduction", "title": "Daniel G. Brinton, introduction to The Maya Chronicles (Philadelphia, 1882) — the hieroglyphic books, the books of Chilan Balam and their transmission", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=nx4sxDnBt_cC&pg=PA65", "publisher": "D. G. Brinton, Brinton's Library of Aboriginal American Literature Number I, Philadelphia, 1882. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id nx4sxDnBt_cC)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The editor's introduction, registered apart from the texts. Nineteenth- century Americanist scholarship, partisan in its language about the Spanish clergy (\"the destructive bigotry of the Spanish priests\") and superseded on several points of Maya chronology, so claims drawn from it are held below 0.9 and its judgements are reported as its own. Pages read as page scans on 2026-08-16: PA65, the ancient hieroglyphic books — parchment made from cured and smoked deerskin, \"Twenty-seven rolls of such parchment, covered with hieroglyphics, were among the articles burned by Bishop Landa, at Mani, in 1562, in a general destruction of everything which related to the ancient life of the nation. He himself says that he burned all that he could lay his hands upon, to the great distress of the natives\", with the footnote quoting Landa's Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan p. 316 (\"Se les quemamos todos lo qual à maravilla sentian y les dava pena\"), and the list of the three codices then known to have escaped (the Codex Tro or Troano published by the French government in 1869, what was believed to be its second part then in process of publication in Paris, and the Codex Peresianus in the National Library, Paris); PA70, \"Chilan Balam\" as a title rather than a proper name, designating \"the priest who announced the will of the gods and explained the sacred oracles\", the Book of Chilan Balam of Mani composed not later than 1595 on internal evidence, the testimony of Landa, Lizana, Sanchez Aguilar and Cogolludo that many such native manuscripts existed in the sixteenth century, several rescripts from the seventeenth and most from the latter half of the eighteenth, and the writers' names generally not given \"because the books, as we have them, are all copies of older manuscripts\"; PA91, the four Books of Chilan Balam of Mani dated 1689, 1697, 1755 and 1761, Berendt's report that the chronicle Pio Perez gave to Stephens came from one held by \"a native schoolmaster of Mani, who, having the surname Balam, claimed to be descended from the original Chilan Balam\", Perez's own closing note (\"Hasta aqui termina el libro titulado Chilambalam que se conserva en el Pueblo de Mani en poder del maestro de Capilla\"), and the first publication of the document in the appendix to the second volume of Stephens's Incidents of Travel in Yucatan (New York, 1843), which \"included the original Maya text, with a not very accurate translation into English of Pio Perez's rendering of the Maya\", from which it was copied into publications in Mexico, Yucatan and Europe." }, { "id": "sahagun-historia-general-1829-t2", "title": "Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España, tomo segundo — libros VI a IX in the Bustamante edition", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=MmMAooljV18C&pg=PA218", "publisher": "Fray Bernardino de Sahagún; dala a luz con notas y suplementos Carlos María de Bustamante, diputado por el estado de Oaxaca, México, Imprenta del Ciudadano Alejandro Valdés, calle de Santo Domingo y esquina de Tacuba, 1829, 466 pages", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "A second volume of the same Bustamante edition already registered in this corpus at tomo tercero, read as page scans on 2026-08-16. Pages opened: PP7, the title page — \"HISTORIA GENERAL DE LAS COSAS DE NUEVA ESPAÑA, QUE EN DOCE LIBROS Y DOS VOLUMENES ESCRIBIÓ, EL R. P. FR. BERNARDINO DE SAHAGUN … DALA A LUZ CON NOTAS Y SUPLEMENTOS CARLOS MARIA DE BUSTAMANTE … TOMO SEGUNDO. MÉXICO: Imprenta del Ciudadano Alejandro Valdés … 1829\"; p. 218, in the book on rhetoric and moral philosophy, the ceremonies prepared for a newborn, including \"una rodelita de masa de bledos, y encima ponian un arco y saetas, y otras cosas hechas de la misma masa\", the mulli or mole with beans and toasted maize, and what was given instead to the children of the poor; p. 382, in the book on the merchants, the night before the sacrifice of purchased slaves, who were given \"unas sopas de una masa que se llama tzoalli mojadas con miel, á cada uno de ellos cuatro bocados\", cut with cords of ixtli, before the hair of the crown of the head was pulled out at the sound of the chichtli. Reliability is set at 0.75 for the same reasons recorded against tomo tercero: what is printed is Bustamante's text of a copy, with his own bracketed glosses inside the author's sentences (the \"[hoy mole]\" on p. 218 is his), and Sahagún is a Franciscan writing about the religion he was sent to replace. The Nahuatl terms are given in the editor's orthography, not the author's manuscript one." }, { "id": "vanderwarker-2025-el-gigante-avocado", "title": "Early evidence of avocado domestication from El Gigante Rockshelter, Honduras", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11912431/", "publisher": "A. M. VanDerwarker, H. B. Thakar, K. Hirth, A. I. Domic, T. K. Harper, R. J. George, E. S. Johnson, V. Newhall, T. E. Scheffler, W. C. McCool, K. Wann, B. S. Gaut, L. Kistler and D. J. Kennett, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 122(10):e2417072122, 2025, open access", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Peer-reviewed report on directly radiocarbon-dated desiccated and carbonised avocado remains from El Gigante rockshelter in western Honduras, read in full text on 2026-08-16. The abstract states that the assemblage spans \"the last 11,000 y\"; that measurements of seeds and rinds \"show evidence for long-term management resulting in selection for larger, more robust fruits through time that culminated by 2,250 to 2,080 calendar B.P.\"; that \"human-directed selection for larger fruits with thicker rinds is evident as early as 7,565 to 7,265 cal. B.P.\"; and that \"Seed morphology is similar to P. americana var. guatemalensis and is congruent with genetic data for the development of this variety in both the highlands of Guatemala and Honduras\". Cited in this corpus only for the archaeobotanical chronology and the varietal attribution, not for anything about the colonial period, which it does not treat." }, { "id": "terzieva-2026-amaranth-review", "title": "Multifunctional Edible Amaranths: A Review of Nutritional Benefits, Anti-Nutritional Factors, and Potential in Sustainable Food Systems", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12785712/", "publisher": "S. Terzieva, S. Baycheva, M. Tzanov, T. Ivanova, D. Dimitrova and N. H. Grozeva, Foods 15(1):130, MDPI, 2026, open access", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Open-access food-science review, read in full text on 2026-08-16. Cited here for two things and no more: the present-day figures (\"high content of proteins (ranging between 12% and 18%)\", and that \"Compared to other grains like wheat and rice, amaranth seeds contain significantly higher amounts of lysine, an essential amino acid often lacking in plant-based diets\"), and the fact that a 2026 food-science review still repeats the colonial-suppression story in one sentence — \"Consequent to the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, amaranth cultivation declined significantly in order to abolish indigenous religious practices; thus, the cultural continuity was broken, and the crop was abandoned\" — with no documentary citation behind it. Reliability is set at 0.6 rather than higher for exactly that reason: the nutritional and agronomic sections are the part its reviewers were competent for, and the historical sentence is an uncited commonplace, used in this corpus as evidence of what the literature says rather than as evidence of what happened." }, { "id": "clavigero-history-of-mexico-richmond-1806-t2", "title": "The History of Mexico, collected from Spanish and Mexican historians, from manuscripts, and ancient paintings of the Indians ... to which are added, critical dissertations on the land, animals, and inhabitants of Mexico. By Abbé D. Francesco Saverio Clavigero. Translated from the original Italian by Charles Cullen, Esq. In three volumes. Vol. II", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=QjgTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA175", "publisher": "Richmond, Virginia: published by William Prichard, 1806. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-16. The digitised copy is NOT the London 1787 first English edition: its title page reads \"RICHMOND, VIRGINIA: PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM PRICHARD. 1806\", in three volumes, and this is volume II, whose contents leaf opens at book VI. Pages opened and read 2026-08-16 - PR1, the title page with the Richmond imprint and Cullen's name as translator; PR3, the contents of volume II; PA175 and PA176, the account of the floating fields and gardens of the Mexican lake in book VII, from the Mexica confinement on the lake islands through the making of the fields, their dimensions, their crops, the daily canoe traffic of flowers and herbs to the market of the capital, and the towing of a garden by its owner. Primary for what this printing states; derivative at two removes for Nahua practice, which reaches the page through Clavigero's compilation, written in Italian in Italian exile from earlier Spanish and Mexican historians and native paintings, and then through Cullen's English. Reliability 0.7 for that reason, and claims are worded as what the volume prints." }, { "id": "pernia-2026-chinamperos-covid", "title": "Estrategias de chinamperos/as para afrontar la inseguridad alimentaria durante la pandemia por COVID-19 en San Gregorio Atlapulco, Ciudad de México, México", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12956283/", "publisher": "Agustin Pernia, José Alberto Rivera-Márquez, Florence L. Théodore, Laura Elena Corona-de la Peña; Cadernos de Saúde Pública 42:e00131925 (2026), doi 10.1590/0102-311XES131925; open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Peer-reviewed qualitative study of chinampa farmers in San Gregorio Atlapulco, Xochimilco, read in full text on 2026-08-16. Cited here for the present-day state of the system, not for its antiquity: its introduction states that the chinampa system is \"el último vestigio lacustre conservado de la Ciudad de México\", surviving in \"las alcaldías de Xochimilco, Tláhuac y Milpa Alta\", that \"Se calcula que fue creado alrededor del año 200 a.C. y que, a la llegada de los españoles, existían unas 9.000 hectáreas con capacidad para alimentar a 200.000 personas\", and that the chinampas face \"contaminación ambiental y del agua, el avance de la urbanización y la paulatina pérdida de prácticas culturales\". The date and the hectarage are the article's summary of other people's estimates rather than its own measurements, and claims bound to them are worded and scored accordingly; the study's own evidence is the interview material on how chinamperos kept selling and eating during the pandemic." }, { "id": "vallarta-juicio-de-amparo-1881", "title": "El juicio de amparo y el writ of habeas corpus. Ensayo crítico-comparativo sobre esos recursos constitucionales", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=35QWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39", "publisher": "Ignacio L. Vallarta; México, Imprenta de Francisco Diaz de Leon, calle de Lerdo número 3, 1881. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The 1881 Mexico sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-16 through the anchored click3 page-image route at w=1600. Title page (PP7) confirms author, imprint and year. Reliability sits below the tier deliberately and for a specific reason: Vallarta was president of the Mexican Supreme Court when he wrote this, the book defends the jurisprudence of the court he presided over against North American comparison, and its comparative judgements about the \"superioridad\" of the amparo over the habeas corpus are advocacy by an interested party. It is first-rate evidence of what the amparo's chief architect-in-office said the remedy was and where he said it came from, and weaker evidence for how well it worked. Pages opened and read 2026-08-16 — PA30, the English and North American history of habeas corpus and the statement that \"En México nunca ha existido el habeas corpus con el carácter que reviste en Inglaterra y en los Estados-Unidos\"; PA31, the \"poder conservador\" of the second constitutional law of 29 December 1836, the text of article 25 of the Acta de reformas of 18 May 1847 quoted in full with the relative-effect clause, and Vallarta's verdict that the 1847 precept \"fué letra muerta que ningunas aplicaciones prácticas tuvo, quizá por la falta de su ley reglamentaria\", with footnotes citing the Colección de Dublan y Lozano tomos 3 and 5; PA39, the definition of the amparo and the enumeration of the constitutional rights it protects, with articles 2, 6, 7, 3, 4, 9, 11 and 19 of the Constitution and article 1 of the Reforms of 25 September 1873 named; PA40, the continuation of that enumeration; PA49, the rule that the amparo does not lie against acts of private persons and the reasoning Vallarta gives for it; PA107, on the amparo reaching beyond personal liberty. Searches inside the volume were also run for \"Rejon\", \"Yucatan\", \"acta de reformas\" and \"Otero\"; the volume names Yucatán only in later case reports and in the constitutional signatory lists, so nothing here may be cited for Manuel Crescencio Rejón or the Yucatán constitution of 1841." }, { "id": "constitucion-federal-1857-en-vallarta-1881", "title": "Constitucion federal de los Estados-Unidos Mexicanos de 1857, articles 99 to 102, as reprinted in the documentary appendix of Vallarta's El juicio de amparo y el writ of habeas corpus", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=35QWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA496", "publisher": "Reprinted in Ignacio L. Vallarta, El juicio de amparo y el writ of habeas corpus, México, Imprenta de Francisco Diaz de Leon, 1881, appendix", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Registered separately from the essay that carries it, on the same principle already used in this corpus for an ordinance printed as an appendix to a later book: the appendix is a reprint of a constitutional text of 1857 and is evidence of a different order from the 1881 argument around it. Page PA496 opened and read 2026-08-16 — articles 99, 100, 101 and 102 in full, including article 101's three heads of federal jurisdiction (laws or acts of any authority violating the individual guarantees; federal acts invading state sovereignty; state acts invading the federal sphere) and article 102's rule that the judgment \"será siempre tal que solo se ocupe de individuos particulares limitándose á protegerlos y ampararlos en el caso especial sobre que verse el proceso, sin hacer ninguna declaracion general respecto de la ley ó acto que la motivare\", with the editorial footnote recording that on 30 October 1856 the constituent assembly approved a jury clause as the complement of the draft article. Reliability is 0.85 and not higher because this is an 1881 reprint of the text, not the promulgated original." }, { "id": "partidas-real-academia-1807-t1", "title": "Los siete partidas del Rey Don Alfonso el Sabio, cotejadas con varios códices antiguos por la Real Academia de la Historia, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=V8sQgUawuY8C&pg=PR30", "publisher": "Real Academia de la Historia; Madrid, en la Imprenta Real, 1807. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The 1807 Imprenta Real edition, tomo I, read as page scans on 2026-08-16 at w=1600. This is the Academy's collated edition, so the medieval text it prints is an editorial reconstruction from codices and not a manuscript quotation; the pages cited here are from the editors' own prólogo, which is an early-nineteenth-century scholarly statement and is treated as such. Pages opened and read — PR26, on the date of composition, where the editors argue from the code's own prologue that work began on 23 June 1256, the eve of St John the Baptist, four years and twenty-three days after Alfonso came to the throne on 1 June 1252, and rebuke earlier writers for the \"tan gran variedad de dictámenes\" they produced by not simply reading the prologue; PR30, the passage on the code's authority — the law of the Ordenamiento de Alcalá inserted by the Catholic Monarchs in the first of the laws of Toro and reinserted in the successive editions of the Recopilación, \"dándose siempre á las Partidas el postrer lugar, y puede decirse que subsidiario entre las demas colecciones de nuestras leyes\", the royal cédula prefixed to the just-published Novísima Recopilación ordering that the study of derecho patrio in the universities be made through the Recopilación and the leyes de Partida, and the two Seville editions of 1491 prepared by Alonso Díaz de Montalvo whose faults were copied at Burgos, Venice and Lyon. Searches were also run inside the volume for \"Alcala\", \"siervos\" and \"prologo\"; the hits at PR35 to PR46 are the editors' descriptions of the Escurialense and Toledano codices collated, which are not cited here." }, { "id": "moreau-lislet-carleton-partidas-1820", "title": "The Laws of Las Siete Partidas which are still in force in the State of Louisiana, translated from the Spanish", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=KndGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PR3", "publisher": "Translated by L. Moreau Lislet and Henry Carleton; New Orleans, printed by James M'Karaher, no. 60, Chartres-Street, 1820. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The 1820 New Orleans sheets, read as page scans on 2026-08-16 at w=1600. Primary as an artefact — it is the document by which a state of the United States put a thirteenth-century Castilian code into English for its own courts — and reliability is set at 0.8 because the translators say plainly that they are not deciding what is in force: they translate and leave the question to the tribunals. Pages opened and read — PR3, the opening of the Translators' Preface, with the Louisiana legislature's law of 3 March 1819 authorising the work at the expense of the state, the statement that it contains \"a translation of all that portion of Las Siete Partidas, which is considered as having the force of law in Louisiana\", the omission of the parts relating to the Catholic faith and to criminal matters as repealed, and the list of Spanish codes (Fuero Juzgo, Fuero Viejo, Fuero Real, the Ordinances of Alcalá, the laws of Toro, the Recopilación de Castilla and the Recopilación de las Indias) whose degree of authority \"in Spain, and the countries under her dominions\" the preface undertakes to notice; PR24, the editorial method, including the decision \"to give the translation of all those laws which have not been expressly repealed by the legislature, or which are not repugnant to the constitution of the United States, or to that of this state, leaving to the proper tribunals to determine whether they are in force or not\", and the practice of keeping the Spanish word in the text where no English equivalent existed; PA470, the head of Partida fourth, title V, \"Of the marriage of slaves\", with its table of the four laws and the opening of law 1, that the church has long consented that slaves should intermarry, that a slave may marry a free woman and the marriage be valid if she knew he was a slave, and the translators' note that \"there is no title in the Roman laws under this head\". Searches were also run for \"still in force\", \"slaves\" and \"Ordenamiento de Alcala\"; the Alcalá hits are the translators' running cross-references to the Recopilación de las Indias and other codes, at PA129, PA153, PA171, PA259 and PA295, and are not cited." }, { "id": "nunez-de-pineda-cautiverio-feliz-1863", "title": "Cautiverio feliz, y razon de las guerras dilatadas de Chile, por don Francisco Nuñez de Pineda y Bascuñan — Coleccion de Historiadores de Chile y documentos relativos a la historia nacional, tomo III", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=QqjUAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Santiago, Imprenta del Ferrocarril, calle de la Bandera num. 39, 1863", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The 1863 Santiago printing of a text its author finished in 1673, read as page scans on 2026-08-16. Pages opened and read: PP7 the title page of the volume (\"COLECCION DE HISTORIADORES DE CHILE Y DOCUMENTOS RELATIVOS A LA HISTORIA NACIONAL. TOMO III. CAUTIVERIO FELIZ, Y RAZON DE LAS GUERRAS DILATADAS DE CHILE, POR DON FRANCISCO NUÑEZ DE PINEDA Y BASCUÑAN. SANTIAGO, IMPRENTA DEL FERROCARRIL, Calle de la Bandera, núm 39. 1863\"); PA41 the Mapuche parlamento held over the author's own life; PA91-PA92 the passage on the injustice of the war and on slavery as its instrument; PA252-PA253 the aged cacique's account of Spanish rule and of the death of governor Valdivia. Reliability is set well below the tier for three reasons the text supplies itself. First, the author is an interested party: he was a Spanish officer, the son of a Chilean field-master, and the book argues a case about how the war should be fought and about services rendered. Second, he wrote in 1673 about a captivity of 1629, some forty-four years after the events, and the long speeches he gives to Mapuche caciques are his reconstruction, not transcription - at PA252 he says himself that most of what he reports he \"supe por los informes de aquellos ancianos caciques\", naming the eldest, Aremcheu. Third, this is a nineteenth-century edition prepared from a manuscript copy, not the author's autograph, so the spelling and wording read here are the 1863 editor's transcription. The search layer of this scan answers some terms and not others: \"esclavos\" and \"parlamento\" return hits, while \"paces\", \"Baides\" and \"Quillen\" return zero, so the volume was navigated from the hits it does return and from its chapter headings." }, { "id": "vicuna-mackenna-estudio-sobre-rosales-1877", "title": "Vida i obras de Diego de Rosales — the editor's biographical and bibliographical study prefixed to Diego de Rosales, Historia general de el reyno de Chile, Flandes indiano, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=2SaDFre_Ez4C&pg=PR15", "publisher": "Benjamin Vicuña Mackenna (ed.); Valparaiso, Imprenta del Mercurio, 1877", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-16, pages PR15 and PR17. IMPORTANT for anyone reusing this id: what was read here is the nineteenth-century editor's study of Rosales's life, NOT Rosales's own seventeenth-century text, which begins later in the volume and was not opened - hence the secondary tier. Vicuña Mackenna states that the marqués de Baides, \"inducido por su índole a una política diametralmente opuesta a la de su antecesor, el belicoso Lazo de la Vega, respecto de los araucanos\", went to settle \"las famosas paces jenerales que llevan su nombre, 'las paces de Baides'\", that father Rosales accompanied him \"al parlamento de los llanos de Quillin, situados a corta distancia de Lumaco, en calidad de consejero, de amigo, i sobre todo, de jesuita\", and that Rosales left Concepción with the Castilian camp bound for Quillín on 6 January 1641 (PR15); and that Rosales later accompanied president Mujica, \"de quien fué íntimo amigo, al segundo parlamento de Quillin (24 de febrero de 1647)\" (PR17). Reliability is set at 0.7 because this is an admiring biography written to introduce an author the editor had himself acquired and was publishing for the first time: the register is frankly celebratory (\"El misionero se hace soldado i el soldado se hace héroe\"), and the same pages show the editor inferring rather than documenting where his evidence runs out - he writes that Rosales's return to Arauco after the 1647 parlamento \"nos hace presumir que se encontraba en aquel paraje\" at the earthquake of 13 May 1647, and rejects a claim of Eyzaguirre's as not corroborated. The dates and the fact of Rosales's presence are what this corpus takes from him; the estimation of his character is not." }, { "id": "perez-de-ribas-triunfos-1645", "title": "Historia de los trivmphos de nvestra santa fee entre gentes las mas barbaras, y fieras del nueuo Orbe: conseguidos por los Soldados de la Milicia de la Compañia de Iesvs en las Missiones de la Prouincia de Nueua-España", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=FHZkAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Andrés Pérez de Ribas; En Madrid, por Alonso de Paredes, junto a los Estudios de la Compañía, 1645. Full-view digitisation of the Madrid first edition, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The Madrid 1645 folio itself, read as page scans on 2026-08-16. The volume carries no OCR search layer, so it was navigated through the click3 page map and its own tabla de capítulos. Pages opened: PP7, the title page — \"HISTORIA DE LOS TRIVMPHOS DE NVESTRA SANTA FEE ENTRE GENTES LAS MAS BARBARAS, y fieras del nueuo Orbe … REFIERENSE ASSIMISMO LAS COSTVMBRES, ritos, y supersticiones que vsauan estas Gentes … las vitorias que de algunas dellas alcançaron con las armas los Catolicos Españoles, quando les obligaron à tomarlas … DEDICADA A LA MVY CATOLICA MAGESTAD DEL REY N. S. FELIPE QVARTO. ESCRITA POR EL PADRE ANDRES PEREZ DE RIBAS, Prouincial en la Nueua España, natural de Cordoua. Año 1645. CON PRIVILEGIO. En Madrid. Por Alōso de Paredes, jūto a los Estudios de la Cōpañia\"; PP15, the aprobación of Fr. Alonso de la Corte, Augustinian, catedrático de prima jubilado of the Real Colegio de S. Agustín of the university of Alcalá de Henares, licensed by the vicar general of Madrid; PP25 and PP27, the author's prologue and carta; PA1, the opening of Libro I; PA20, on the languages and origin of the nations of Cinaloa; PP41, a leaf of the tabla de los capítulos covering the Tepehuán rising. Reliability is set well below the tier because the source is an interested party twice over: the author was Jesuit provincial of New Spain writing the record of his own order's missions, and the book's censor states in the front matter that it will justify the crown's right of conquest. It is reliable as a witness to what a mission-side eyewitness saw and chose to print, not as a neutral account of what was done to the peoples it describes." }, { "id": "diario-de-mexico-1806-tomo-2", "title": "Diario de México, dedicado al Exmô. Señor Don Jose de Yturrigaray … Virrey, Gobernador, y Capitan General de N. E. Presidente de su Real Audiencia. Tomo II", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=TcPc18ojvzsC&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Con licencia del superior gobierno; En la Imprenta de Doña Maria Fernandez Jauregui, calle de Santo Domingo, México, año de 1806. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "A bound run of the daily paper itself — the second tomo, covering issues of January to March 1806 — read as page scans on 2026-08-16. The volume has a working OCR search layer, used to locate the pages below. Pages opened: PP7, the title page as transcribed above; PA69, issue \"Núm. 110. Tom. 2.\" of Saturday 18 January 1806, with its masthead line of saint's day, the church holding the Forty Hours devotion and the time of the full moon, followed by a subscriber's letter and verse signed F. J. P. and a second letter on poetry; PA262, a leaf of the running essay \"Siguen las reflexiones\" against grain hoarding; PA366, the critic signing himself El Pasante on the verse the paper had been printing; PA468, the standing \"Vacuna\" notice and the columns of Encargos, Hallazgo, Venta and Pérdidas. Reliability is high for what the paper printed on a given day, which is what it is cited for here, and no higher: the contents are overwhelmingly unsigned or pseudonymous subscriber correspondence, printed under a licence of the superior government, and the paper is not an independent check on the facts its correspondents assert." }, { "id": "lopez-tesoro-de-medicinas-1708", "title": "Tesoro de medicinas para diversas enfermedades, dispuesto por el venerable Gregorio Lopez", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=7Jp1FnDRUJcC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Añadido, corregido y enmendado con notas de los doctores Mathias de Salazar Mariaca y Joseph Diaz Brizuela; tercera impression, con licencia en Madrid, en la Imprenta de Musica, año de 1708", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The Madrid 1708 printing — the title page calls itself the \"tercera impression\" — of a remedy book composed in New Spain by the hermit Gregorio López (1542-1596) and first printed at Mexico in the 1670s. Read as page scans on 2026-08-16 in the digitisation of a copy stamped by the Biblioteca Histórica of the Universidad Complutense, shelfmark written in ink as \"B-615.89\". Pages opened and read that day. PP1 and PP3-PP4, the limp vellum binding, a blank and an owner's pencilled shelf note; there is no printed matter on them. PP5, the title page, giving the author, the two annotating physicians, the three indices \"de diversos achaques, de yervas, y simples, y de sus virtudes, y calidades\", the \"TERCERA IMPRESSION\", and the imprint \"Con licencia en Madrid, en la Imprenta de Musica. Año de 1708\". PP7, the opening of the Dedicatoria, with its Tacitus and Job epigraphs and the description of the book as remedies \"reducidos à Methodo\". PP9, the continuation of the same dedication, which states plainly that the edition is bound up with a campaign to have López canonised — the dedicator writes of fomenting \"con sus limosnas vuestra Canonizacion, que tanto solicita mi amor\", \"en virtud de Reales Cedulas\" recommending it to Doctor Juan Francisco de Monte-Mayor de Cuenca, oidor of the Audiencia of New Spain and formerly president and captain general in the Isla Española, who had substituted his power in the dedicator for the collection in the bishopric of Puebla de los Ángeles. PA16, the entries for \"Bomito\" and \"Bubas con dolores\", the latter prescribing pulque root, vulture, deer muzzle in pulque, zarzaparrilla with vanilla, and the bark and leaves of the piciete, and running on to the phrase \"experimentado en este insigne Hospital de\". PA17, the continuation \"de Huaztepec\", the bird the Indians call Huaŭtulic identified with the Spanish pito, the chapters \"Bubas antiguas\" (aristolochia root boiled with zarzaparrilla) and \"Bubas de todo genero\", and three of the annotators' notes. PA123-PA127 were signed and PA124-PA125 read: the \"Tabardillo\" entry with its bleeding and its remedy \"muy experimentado en muchissimas ocasiones en este Hospital de Huaztepec\", the entries \"Temblor de miembros\" (oil of piciete) and \"Tercianas, y Quartanas\" (piciete, anis and cinnamon), and the two notes in which the licensed physicians decline to endorse the hermit: Salcedo's \"El baño de agua fria, es peligroso, porque es arrojar el humor adentro\" and Brizuela's \"no los apruebo, sino es despues de puestos oxirodinos\". Reliability is set at 0.75, below the tier, for two reasons the book itself shows: the text is a lay devotional compiler's, not a physician's, and it is printed inside a canonisation campaign that had an interest in its remedies working. Note a discrepancy carried by the volume and not resolved here — the title page prints the first annotator's name as \"Mathias de Salazar Mariaca\" while the notes themselves are signed \"Salcedo\"; the modern literature calls him Salcedo Mariaca. Nothing in this corpus is claimed about which is correct." }, { "id": "fragoso-discursos-cosas-aromaticas-1572", "title": "Discursos de las cosas aromaticas, arboles y frutales, y de otras muchas medicinas simples que se traen de la India Oriental, y siruen al vso de medicina", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=NkBpAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP13", "publisher": "El licenciado Iuan Fragoso, médico y cirujano de su Magestad; con privilegio, impresso en Madrid en casa de Francisco Sanchez, año 1572; véndese en casa de Sebastian Yuañez librero en Corte", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The Madrid 1572 first printing, read as page scans on 2026-08-16; the volume feed reports it full view at 492 pages, and the copy carries an inked ownership mark and a stamp on the title page. Pages opened and read that day. PP13, the title page, with the author styled \"medico, y cyrugiano de su Magestad\", the printer's device motto \"SOLO EN DIOS Y PARA DIOS\", the privilege, and the imprint. PA25 and PA25-IA1, inside the chapter whose running head is \"DEL ASSAFETIDA\": the end of the asafoetida discussion, the marginal tag \"Flor dl Sol\", and the digression it introduces — \"por la semejança có el tallo y su resina\" — into \"vna famosa yerua de Peru\", with the six names it went by in Spain and the account of its sowing and growth. PA26 and PA26-IA1, the rest of that digression: the heart-shaped leaves likened to the gourd's, the resin and gum, the heliotropism described hour by hour, and the passage treating the plant as \"planta de ortaliza\" with a recipe for dressing its leaves as a salad. PA41 and PA41-IA1, inside the chapter whose running head is \"DEL BANGVE\": the tobacco digression, with the names \"Tabaco y Picielt\", the tired Indian who takes the smoke through a cane and wakes with doubled strength, the sentence \"algunos negros de las Indias, toman estos humazos para no sentir los açotes y tormentos que les dan\", and the account of the priests who took the smoke or the powder to give answers about war and weather, left ambiguous between the herb's virtue and the devil's work. PA108, inside the chapter whose running head is \"DE LA CHYNA\", the digression to the guayacán — the wood \"cuyo vso y memoria se obscurecio con la çarça parrilla\", called Guayaco and Guayacán \"entre nuestros Indios\" and Palo de las Indias by the Spaniards, \"el qual se hallo enel primer descubrimiento, que fue en la isla de Sancto Domingo\". The running heads matter and were checked deliberately: the American material in this book sits inside chapters named for Asian drugs, so a page fetched from a search hit will misdescribe itself unless the head is read. Reliability 0.8 — Fragoso was royal physician and surgeon and is describing drugs of commerce at second hand, like Monardes, though he is more cautious about therapeutic claims than Monardes is." }, { "id": "blackman-sunflower-domestication-2011", "title": "Sunflower domestication alleles support single domestication center in eastern North America", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3161615/", "publisher": "Benjamin K. Blackman et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108(34):14360-14365, 2011; doi 10.1073/pnas.1104853108", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Read 2026-08-16. Population-genetic study of domestication alleles concluding that all extant sunflower landraces originate from a single domestication centre in eastern North America, and that the sunflowers grown in Mexico today descend from that same cultivated lineage rather than from an independent Mexican domestication — the Mexican landraces carry the domestication alleles while Mexican wild populations do not. Cited here only for the origin question, which is what it tests. It is explicitly NOT cited for anything about Europe: the paper does not discuss the plant reaching Spain and gives no dates for that, and it supplies no radiocarbon dates for the pre-Columbian Mexican archaeological material it argues against. The Mexican second-centre hypothesis it rejects is held by other researchers, which is why the claim bound to this source in this corpus is stated below 0.9 with the disagreement named." }, { "id": "cortes-escritos-sueltos-1871", "title": "Escritos sueltos de Hernan Cortés - the testament of 11 October 1547 and the Ordenanzas inéditas del año de 1524, printed from the archive of the Duque de Terranova y Monteleone kept in the hospital de Jesús", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=IkJGAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA356", "publisher": "México, Biblioteca histórica de la Iberia, tomo XII, imprenta de Ignacio Escalante y Cª, 1871. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "A nineteenth-century Mexican collection that prints sixteenth-century instruments verbatim, read as page scans at 1800 pixels wide on 2026-08-16; the printed page number equals the PA page id and the volume carries a working OCR search layer. Registered as primary because what is cited from it are the documents it transcribes, not its editors' opinions, and because it prints its own provenance and its own variants; reliability is set at 0.8 rather than higher because the transcriptions are made from manuscript copies, not from originals, and the editors say so. Pages opened and read - PA26, the close of Cortés's letter of 15 May 1522 and the head-note to the \"ORDENANZAS INÉDITAS DEL AÑO DE 1524. Sacadas del archivo del Excmo. Sr. Duque de Terranova y Monteleone, en el hospital de Jesus. - Partida cuarta del legajo número 19 del segundo inventario\", with the opening of the ordinances themselves; PA356, clauses 7 to 9 of the testament, including the order that the bones of Doña Catalina Pizarro be moved to Coyoacán and clause 9, \"mando, que la obra del hospital de nuestra Señora de la Concepcion, que yo mando hacer en la ciudad de México, en la Nueva España, se acabe á mi costa, segun y de la manera que está trazada\", with the editors' footnote recording that the manuscript copy followed differs from the copy used by Dr Mora and that the clause has been corrected against the latter; PA357, the continuation of clause 9 with the traza of Pedro Vázquez Jumétrico sent from Spain in 1547, the assignment to the building of \"la renta de las tiendas é casas que yo tengo en la dicha ciudad de México, en la plaza é calle de Tacuba, é San Francisco\", the prohibition on the successor spending that rent on anything else until the work is finished, and the order that in default of the institution he leaves the hospital be governed in the form used at \"el hospital de las Cinco Plagas de esta ciudad de Sevilla, que fundó la señora Dª Catalina de Rivero\"; PA358, clause 10 on the perpetual memorias at Medellín and the patronage vested in the successor of the house, and the opening of clause 11; PA360, the end of clause 13 ordering a college at Coyoacán \"para estudiantes que estudien teología é derecho canónico; é para que haya personas doctas en la dicha Nueva España, que rijan las iglesias é informen é instruyan á los naturales de ella en las cosas tocantes á nuestra fe católica\", to be governed by the statutes of the colegio de Santa María de Jesús of Seville, and clause 14 on the two solares fronting the houses of Jorge de Alvarado and the treasurer Juan Alonso de Sosa assigned to the dotación of the hospital." }, { "id": "vizcainas-resena-historica-1889", "title": "El Real colegio de San Ignacio de Loyola, vulgarmente Colegio de las Vizcaínas, en la actualidad Colegio de la Paz - reseña histórica", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=tWlIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA78", "publisher": "México, imprenta de F. Díaz de León, 1889. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "A house history of the college, written in 1889 by an author writing from inside the institution and openly admiring of its Basque founders, read as page scans at 1800 pixels wide on 2026-08-16; working OCR search layer, printed page number equal to the PA page id, and a separate appendix of documents occupying reading area RA1. Reliability 0.7, below the tier, and for stated reasons: the narrative is celebratory, it calls the founders \"varones justos y tenaces\" in Horace's words, and where it glosses an eighteenth-century restriction it glosses it in the direction favourable to the institution. It is nonetheless good evidence of dates, sums and quoted documents, and it prints the constitutions themselves in its appendix, registered separately here. Pages opened and read - PA78, the close of the jurisdictional fight, \"el reconocimiento de esas exenciones no fué admitido por la Mitra hasta el mes de Agosto de 1767. ¡Diez y seis años luchó la Mesa fundadora con la jurisdicción eclesiástica, para lograr independerse de ella!\", with Aldaco's remark \"A la Corte y á Roma por todo, y si saliésemos deslucidos, pegarle fuego á lo que nos ha costado nuestro dinero\"; PA79, the chapter summary naming the blessing and opening of 9 September 1767, the \"Demostración del carácter independiente, laico y particular del Colegio Vizcaíno\", the note relative to Dª Josefa Ortiz and the \"Confirmación del carácter laico del Colegio\", and the text recording the obedecimiento of the real cédula of 17 July by archbishop Lorenzana and the junta of 23 August; PA81, the fourth of the nine articles of exemption in the bull of Clement XIII requiring only extrajudicial and verbal approval of chaplains, the election of the first chaplains on 28 August, the first election of the college's own women officers three days later - Rectora Dª María Teresa Magaña, Vice-Rectora Dª Ana Lozano Zaraquienegui, Secretaria Dª Teresa Lejarza - and the blessing of the building on Wednesday 9 September 1767 at half past six in the morning, when ten commissioners went in ten coaches to fetch the first twenty-three colegialas from Belem, la Concepción, Balvanera and Jesús María; PA95, the author's reading of the pacts, \"el Monarca se obligó á garantizar la permanencia y duración del Colegio y á no alterar en modo alguno el ser y espíritu que quisieron imprimirle sus fundadores\", the sixth constitution making it \"un Colegio y asilo de doncellas y viudas que jamás podría administrar el Clero ni convertirse en Monasterio de Religiosas ó Beatas\", the fourth and fifth on the treasurer, the strongbox and the archive, and the seventh, eighth and twenty-second on admission - married women barred absolutely, \"las doncellas y viudas deberían ser españolas, esto es, hijas de súbditos españoles, que lo eran entonces todos los nacidos en dominios de la corona de España\" (the gloss is the author's), preference to the daughters and widows of vascongados, \"jamás podrían admitirse hijas ilegítimas\", and ten pesos a month for paying porcionistas; PA103, the chapter on the public schools or clases externas conceived by the bachiller Manuel Eduardo Zorrilla, accepted by the Mesa de Aranzazu and inaugurated on 21 June 1793, twenty-six years after the college opened, with the reglamento drawn by Juan Bautista de Arechederreta; PA240, the state of the house in 1889 - admission requiring no special qualification beyond an age between eight and fourteen, places of grace given to \"las huérfanas pobres y de mayores méritos, sin distinción de nacionalidad\" with preference kept for the rare descendant of vizcaínos, annual enrolment of 110 to 150 boarders and 300 to 350 day pupils, 106 endowed places between San Ignacio, Belem and Santa María de la Caridad, free books and materials for poor girls, and a library of five hundred volumes." }, { "id": "constituciones-colegio-san-ignacio-1766", "title": "Constituciones del Colegio de S. Ignacio de Loyola de México, fundado y dotado por la Ilustre Congregación de Ntra. Señora de Aranzazu ... aprobado su Establecimiento y Constituciones por Real Cédula de 17 de Julio de 1766, con inserción de la Bula del Papa Clemente XIII", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=tWlIAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA55", "publisher": "Printed as Documento núm. 7 of the documentary appendix to El Real colegio de San Ignacio de Loyola, México, imprenta de F. Díaz de León, 1889. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "The foundation instrument itself, printed in the old orthography of its eighteenth-century original inside a nineteenth-century appendix, and registered separately from the narrative that surrounds it because it is a different kind of text and carries a different tier. Read as a page scan at 1800 pixels wide on 2026-08-16 at RA1-PA55, which carries the close of the preceding document - the fourteen rubrics of the Mesa as \"Patronos y directores del expresado Real Colegio\", and the secretary Agustín Francisco Guerrero y Tagle certifying at México on 11 September 1767 that the baptismal certificates of the forty named colegialas presented by Manuel de Aldaco remain in the archive of the confraternity - and then the head of the constitutions in full: the college founded and endowed by the congregation of Nuestra Señora de Aranzazu \"para la manutención, y enseñanza de Niñas Huerfanas, y Viudas pobres. Admitido debaxo de la Real immediata proteccion de S. M. con inhibicion de los Tribunales de la Nueva España; y aprobado su Establecimiento, y Constituciones por Real Cedula de 17 de Julio de 1766 con insercion de la Bula del Papa Clemente XIII declaratoria de los puntos pertenecientes a la Jurisdiccion Eclesiastica\"; and the opening of the royal text, reciting the earlier cédula of 1 September 1753 and the representation of the Rector and Diputados of the confraternity of Aranzazu, \"compuesta de los naturales, y originarios del Señorío de Vizcaya, Provincias de Guipuzcoa, y Alaba, y Reyno de Navarra\", sited in its own chapel within the walls of the great convent of San Francisco, that in the year 1732 it had resolved to erect, found and build the house. Reliability 0.8 rather than higher because the text is read in an 1889 reprint and no original imprint or archival copy was opened." }, { "id": "olavarria-teatro-en-mexico-1895", "title": "Reseña histórica del teatro en México", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=sja0AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19", "publisher": "Enrique de Olavarría y Ferrari; México, imprenta 'La Europea', 1895. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "A history of the Mexican stage written by a Spanish-born Mexican man of letters in 1895, read as page scans at 1800 pixels wide on 2026-08-16; working OCR search layer and printed page number equal to the PA page id. Reliability 0.7, below the tier, because the author writes with a declared liberal and anticlerical temper - his own comment on the colonial arrangement is \"Esa era la época: todo lo que rendía algún provecho, tributaba ó era propiedad del poder eclesiástico, erigido en tutor de la sociedad civil y en promotor y director de la educación y de la beneficencia\" - so his framing is carried in this corpus as framing and his documents and figures as evidence. Pages opened and read - PA19, the first coliseo of Mexico, earlier than 1673, \"sito en el claustro del Hospital Real de Naturales, cuya cédula de creación se remonta á 1553\", managed like the hospital by the Hipólito friars and constituting \"una de sus rentas más pingües\", compared with the Cruz and the Pacheca in Madrid which maintained the Hospital General there; the observation that it was purpose-built for theatre and permanently roofed \"casi setenta años antes\" than the corrales of the Príncipe and the Cruz; the description of its two andanadas of aposentos entered through the hospital cloisters, the celosías with their shutters \"para ver ó ser vistos\", the cazuela, and a stage a vara and a half high, fifteen long and eight wide with the royal arms on the frontispiece; the report on it by Pedro de Arrieta, maestro mayor of the kingdom and of the cathedral; and Mateo Jaramillo as autor of the Coliseo company in 1673; PA34, the auto of 15 December 1778 by which Basilio Villarasa Venegas, \"Oidor de la Real Audiencia y Juez en turno de Hospitales y de la finca del Coliseo\", suspended and embargoed the lessee San Vicente, the repertory then in vogue named play by play, and the account for 19 April to 19 December 1778 - takings 34,225 pesos 4 reales, costs 23,602 pesos 6 and a half reales, profit 10,622 pesos 5 and a half reales; PA43, the opening of the document \"Razón de los individuos de que se componen las Compañías de Cómicos, Bailarines y Orquesta del Teatro de esta Corte, sus sueldos y obligaciones\", which Olavarría says is published there for the first time, with the first dama Antonia de San Martín at 1,800 pesos a season, unable to be dismissed or recast, obliged to play one free comedia de pilón a month to cover adealas and gajes, another whenever a member of the company died until the fifty pesos given for the burial were covered, and one a year for the wax of the Oración de las Cuarenta Horas in the Hospital Real, obligations extended by the following note to every member of the company and orchestra, and the second dama María Ortega y Rocha at 1,000 pesos." }, { "id": "rivera-madrid-2016-achiote-carotenoids", "title": "Carotenoid Derivates in Achiote (Bixa orellana) Seeds: Synthesis and Health Promoting Properties", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5030781/", "publisher": "Renata Rivera-Madrid, Margarita Aguilar-Espinosa, Yair Cardenas-Conejo and Laura Elena Garza-Caligaris, Frontiers in Plant Science 7:1406, Frontiers Media, 2016, open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Peer-reviewed review of the biosynthesis and properties of the apocarotenoids of Bixa orellana, doi 10.3389/fpls.2016.01406, PMCID PMC5030781, read in full text on 2026-08-16. Cited here for four things and no more: that achiote is a neotropical species \"used since pre-colonial times as a culinary colorant and spice, and for healing purposes\" and \"used since pre-hispanic times in America as a remedy for different illness\", with smallpox and other rashes among the complaints named; that \"The natural achiote pigments are commercially known as annatto (E160b)\"; that JECFA \"estimated the ADI (Acceptable Daily Intake) for annatto as 0-2.5 mg/Kg body weight day-1\"; and the authors' own caution that \"Toxicological data on annatto pigments are limited\" because additives derived from natural sources have been exempt from certification. The review says nothing about body paint, about market share, or about which countries produce the seed today, and nothing of the kind is taken from it here." }, { "id": "aluko-2024-annatto-bixin-extraction", "title": "Ethanol-Based Extraction of Annatto (Bixa Orellana L.) and Characterization of the Bixin and Norbixin", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11044141/", "publisher": "Ebenezer Aluko, ACS Omega 9(16):18273-18277, American Chemical Society, 2024, open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-16", "notes": "Short experimental paper on solvent extraction of the annatto pigments, doi 10.1021/acsomega.3c10120, PMCID PMC11044141, read in full text on 2026-08-16. Used here for two figures only, both stated in its introduction: \"The annatto seeds contain about 5% pigment, which consists of 70-80% of bixin\", and that the plant \"originated from Central America and is now widely grown throughout the tropical regions of the world, including West Africa\". The paper gives no market share, no E-number and no producer ranking, and none is taken from it. Reliability 0.8 rather than higher because the introduction is a brief literature summary rather than the paper's own measured contribution, which is the extraction chemistry this corpus does not cite." }, { "id": "recopilacion-indias-1791-t3", "title": "Recopilación de leyes de los reynos de las Indias … Quarta impresión — Tomo Tercero (Libro VIIII)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=t5EbF6Y1EM4C&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Madrid, por la Viuda de D. Joaquín Ibarra, impresora del Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias, 1791. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "The third volume of the fourth impression, the one that carries Libro VIIII whole — the Casa de la Contratación, the armadas and flotas, and the Indies trade. Registered because the two tomos already on the shelf (recopilacion-indias-1791-t1, libros I-III; recopilacion-indias-1791-t2, libros IIII-VIII) stop short of it, and the 1681 fourth tome (recopilacion-indias-1681-t4) contains only Libro VIIII from título 28 onward plus the índice general, with its own folio numbering restarting at one — so título 23, at folio 276, is in neither. Page images read 2026-08-17. PP5 title page, \"TOMO TERCERO. QUARTA IMPRESION. Hecha de órden del Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias. MADRID MDCCLXXXXI. POR LA VIUDA DE D. JOAQUIN IBARRA\"; PP7 the índice of the títulos of Libro VIIII, which places tít. 15 \"De los Generales, Almirantes, y Gobernadores de las Flotas\" at fol. 141, tít. 16 \"De el Veedor, y Contador de la Armada\" at fol. 207, and tít. 23 \"Del Piloto mayor, y Cosmógrafos, y de los demas Pilotos de la Carrera de Indias, y Arráeces de Barcos de carga, y su exâmen\" at fol. 276. In this digitisation the printed folio is the page id, so PA276 is folio 276. Pages opened: PA203-PA204 (Instrucción de Generales, caps. 46-49), PA213 (Instrucción de Veedores, cap. 21), PA276-PA281 (título 23, leyes j to xviij), PA388-PA389 (título 30, leyes xxxxv to liiij)." }, { "id": "pareja-arte-timuquana-paris-1886", "title": "Arte de la lengua timuquana compuesto en 1614 por el Pe Francisco Pareja, y publicado conforme al ejemplar original único (Bibliothèque linguistique américaine)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=g18SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Edited by Lucien Adam and Julien Vinson; printed by Imp. Georges Jacob, Orléans; Paris, 1886", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Full-view digitisation with a working OCR search layer; page images open only at 300 px this run, so every quotation below was read from the page image and cross-checked against the SearchWithinVolume snippet text. Pages read 2026-08-17. PR6 reproduces the 1614 title page in facsimile (\"ARTE Y pronunciacion en LENGVA TIMVQVANA, Y Castellana … Impresso Con licencia en Mexico. En la Empresa de Iuan Ruyz. Año 1614\"). PA2 carries the \"ADVERTENCIA PRIMERA\" on Timucua phonology; PA11, PA17, PA25 the declension and the verbal noun. This entry covers the reprinted 1614 text only; Vinson's 1886 editorial matter is registered separately as vinson-introduction-timuquana-1886." }, { "id": "vinson-introduction-timuquana-1886", "title": "Julien Vinson, Introduction to the 1886 edition of Pareja's Arte de la lengua timuquana (pp. iii–xxxi), with bibliography of Pareja's imprints and three Timucua texts", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=g18SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR6", "publisher": "Edited by Lucien Adam and Julien Vinson; printed by Imp. Georges Jacob, Orléans; Paris, 1886", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Nineteenth-century editorial matter, signed \"Paris, 22 août 1886\". Pages read 2026-08-17: PR6–PR7 (title-page facsimile and the footnote on \"compuesto y de nuevo sacado à luz\"), PR8 (three authorities giving three birthplaces for Pareja, and two death dates a fortnight apart), PR9–PR11 (bibliography of the Mexico imprints of 1612, 1613 and 1627, and the description of the 1688 petition), PR20 (mission chronology and the disappearance of the language), PR21 (dialect list and phonological table), PR27–PR31 (three Timucua texts, including the 1688 petition with its Spanish translation and notarial certification). Vinson works from Buckingham Smith's 1860 facsimile and from Gatschet, not from the manuscripts; his note on the 1688 petition names Philip IV as addressee, which the document itself does not support. Reliability set at 0.7 for that reason." }, { "id": "pareja-catecismo-timuquano-mexico-1627", "title": "Catecismo en lengua timuquana, y castellana, en el qual se instruyen y cathequizan los adultos infieles que an de ser christianos (Mexico, Juan Ruyz, 1627)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=MMw_q3P3sNIC&pg=PP3", "publisher": "Juan Ruyz, Mexico, 1627", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Original printing, full view, no OCR search layer; read leaf by leaf from page images on 2026-08-17. PP3 the viceregal licence of the Marqués de Cerralvo, reciting that the ten-year licence had run out and granting eight years more; PP5 the archbishopric licence of Doctor Pedro Garcés de Portillo, \"Mexico 22. de Mayo de 1626\", and the opening of the comisario general's licence; PP7 the provincial licence of Fr. Alonso Ortiz, San Agustín de la Florida, 12 January 1625; PP9 the approbation of Fr. Melchor Ferraz, 13 January 1625, and the opening of a further approbation; PP11 the approbation of Fr. Martín de Bustamante, 31 December 1624, and a sonnet by Fr. Basilio de la Cruz; PP13 a second poem; PA1 and PA20 the body, printed in alternating Timucua and Castilian paragraphs under the running head \"Castellana, y Timuquana\"." }, { "id": "gatschet-timucua-language-1880", "title": "Albert S. Gatschet, \"The Timucua Language\", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (read 20 February 1880), pp. 465ff.", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=MeuqGqn6zdoC&pg=PA465", "publisher": "American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1880", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.65, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Digitised original with a working search layer; pages read 2026-08-17 (PA465 the head of the article, PA470 the mission and raid chronology). Cited here as a printed nineteenth-century document, not as current scholarship: Gatschet writes as an Anglo-American philologist with a declared low opinion of the missionaries' orthography, his ethnography is reconstructed at second hand from Pareja and Laudonnière, and several of his dates are given without a source. Reliability 0.65 accordingly. He states that the letter he prints was sent to King Charles II of Spain, which is the point on which Vinson's introduction differs from him." }, { "id": "machoni-arte-lule-tonocote-1732", "title": "Arte, y Vocabulario de la Lengua Lule, y Tonocote, compuestos con facultad de sus superiores por el Padre Antonio Machoni de Cerdeña, de la Compañía de Jesús", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=zyJKAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "En Madrid: Por los Herederos de Juan García Infanzón, año de 1732 (Bayerische Staatsbibliothek copy, digitised full view, Google Books id zyJKAAAAcAAJ)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "The 1732 Madrid imprint itself, read as page scans on 2026-08-17. Title page (PP7) transcribed in full; the internal head at PA1 reverses the order to \"ARTE DE LA LENGUA TONOCOTÉ, Y LULE\", which is worth knowing when matching catalogue entries. Pages opened and read: PP7 (title), PP9 (approbation touching the Vocabulario), PP14 and PP15 (the account of the 1710 entrada of Governor Esteban de Urízar, the settlement at Valbuena and then Miraflores, and the decision not to encomendar the Lules but to place them under the Royal Crown as auxiliary soldiers exempt from mita and personal service), PP17 (Machoni's own account of a contagious sickness that killed many adults at the start of his mission, and of Alonso de Bárcena's Arte, composed more than a hundred years earlier and never printed), PP20 (the geography of the Yabibiry, Verde and Pilcomayo rivers, and Machoni's statement of his own motive), PA1 (chapter I, the five nations and the loanwords). The volume has a working search layer. A second full-view digitisation of the same printing exists at KPiTIS6qjIAC and was used only to cross-check the preliminaries; it is not registered, being a finding aid rather than a distinct source." }, { "id": "marban-arte-lengua-moxa-1701-lima", "title": "Arte de la lengua Moxa, con su Vocabulario, y Cathecismo, compuesto por el M. R. P. Pedro Marbán de la Compañía de Jesús", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=f55CsCYirkEC", "publisher": "En la Imprenta Real de Joseph de Contreras (Lima); the licences bound into the volume are dated Lima, 15, 16 and 17 December 1701. Digitised full view, Google Books id f55CsCYirkEC", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "The imprint itself, read as page scans on 2026-08-17. Pages opened and read: PP1 (title page, transcribed; it names Marbán as former superior of the Society's missions \"en las dilatadas Regiones de los Indios Moxos, y Chiquitos\" and dedicates the book to the viceroy Melchor Portocarrero Lasso de la Vega, conde de la Monclova, and gives the printer as the Imprenta Real de Joseph de Contreras — the left edge and the foot of this leaf are cropped in the digitisation and no year is legible on it); PP5 (the dedicatory prose on the language as a weapon and on grammars of \"naciones políticas\"); PP12 (Antonio Garriga's approbation, Colegio Máximo de San Pablo, 16 December 1701, and the ordinary's licence, Los Reyes, 17 December 1701, signed by order of the provisor by Juan Manuel del Molino); PP13 (the licence of Diego Francisco Altamirano, visitor and vice-provincial of the Society in the Province of Peru, Lima, 15 December 1701, which itemises what is being licensed: Arte, Vocabulario, Catecismo mayor y menor, Oraciones, Confesionario and práctica de administrar los Santos Sacramentos); PA1 and PA2 (chapter I, \"Del Accento, y Declinacion\"). The date on the Google Books record is 1702; the dated evidence inside the volume is the December 1701 licence chain, and this registry follows the licences rather than the catalogue record. Search layer works." }, { "id": "quintana-belmar-arte-mixe-1891", "title": "Arte de la lengua mixe, por el Padre Fray Agustín de Quintana, impreso en Puebla el año de 1729; reimpreso por el Lic. Francisco Belmar", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=4YATAAAAYAAJ", "publisher": "Oaxaca: Imprenta del Comercio, 1ª Calle de la Libertad, letra A, Wenceslao Güendulain y Compañía, 1891 (Tozzer Library / Peabody Museum copy, digitised full view, Google Books id 4YATAAAAYAAJ)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "A nineteenth-century Mexican reimpresión, not the Puebla 1729 imprint, and registered at secondary for exactly that reason: the text of Quintana's Arte reaches this run through Belmar's press, not through the original sheets. Read as page scans on 2026-08-17. Pages opened: PP7 (half title), PP9 (full title page with the imprint transcribed above), PP11 and PP12 (Belmar's unsigned introduction), PR1 and PR2 (the reprinted text of Quintana, headed \"MODO DE HABLAR LA LENGUA MIXE\"). Belmar's introduction is doing two distinct jobs and they are cited separately in the claims: as a bibliographical description of the 1729 volume — the Arte occupies thirty unfoliated preliminary leaves of Quintana's Instrucción cristiana y guía de ignorantes para el cielo en lengua mixe, whose three parts run to page 550 and whose chapters print Mixe followed immediately by a Castilian translation — and as an 1891 polemic in his own voice about the state of indigenous-language study in Oaxaca. The second is a primary witness to Belmar's own opinions and a secondary one to anything else; his frame is explicitly assimilationist (\"introducir la civilización entre los indios\", \"la unificación de las lenguas\"), which the claims state rather than smooth over. The volume's search layer answers only sparsely — \"declinacion\" and \"Oaxaca imprenta\" both return zero on pages that visibly contain neighbouring text — so pages here were reached by walking the click3 neighbourhood rather than by search." }, { "id": "raghavendra-2002-neuromuscular-blocking-drugs", "title": "Neuromuscular blocking drugs: discovery and development", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1279945/", "publisher": "T. Raghavendra, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 95(7), 363-367, 2002; open-access copy at PubMed Central, PMCID PMC1279945", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "A short historical review by an anaesthetist, read on 2026-08-17 for the route by which the South American arrow poison became a surgical drug. What it carries and is cited for here - that Peter Martyr d'Anghera first wrote of the poisoned arrows in De Orbe Novo; that Raleigh met the poison in Venezuela in 1594 and that his lieutenant called it \"ourari\"; Charles Waterton's 1814 demonstrations, including the ass revived with a bellows; that \"Claude Bernard published the details of his experiments on frogs in 1846\", showing that curare stops the muscle from answering the nerve while the muscle still answers direct stimulation; that \"Harold King isolated d-tubocurarine from a museum sample of curare\"; that \"Richard Gill, an American living in Ecuador, developed multiple sclerosis and returned to the United States in search of a cure\", the crude curare he brought back being the material Wintersteiner and Dutcher worked on in 1942; and that on \"23 January 1942\" Harold Griffith and his resident Enid Johnson gave curare to a young man undergoing appendicectomy in Montreal. The plant sources are given by family, Menispermaceae (Chondrodendron) and Loganiaceae (Strychnos). Reliability is set at 0.8 rather than higher because the review is a clinician's historical sketch rather than a work of history: it gives no year for King's isolation, cites no archival source for the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century reports it opens with, and does not discuss the Spanish missionary literature at all. It is used here only for the nineteenth- and twentieth-century chain, never for anything about the eighteenth-century description, which is quoted from the printing itself." }, { "id": "schmutz-2014-common-bean-dual-domestications", "title": "A reference genome for common bean and genome-wide analysis of dual domestications", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7048698/", "publisher": "Nature Genetics 46(7):707-713, Nature Publishing Group", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed genome paper by Jeremy Schmutz, Phillip E. McClean, Scott A. Jackson and colleagues, 2014, DOI 10.1038/ng.3008, read in the PMC deposit on 2026-08-17. Cited here for the domestication geography and its dates: that common bean was independently domesticated \"nearly 8,000 years ago\" in what is now Mexico and in South America; that the wild Andean gene pool separated from the wild Mesoamerican pool about 165,000 years ago, with a confidence interval of 146,000 to 184,000 years, the Andean founding population passing through a strong bottleneck lasting about 76,000 years; and that fewer than 10 per cent of the 74 Mb of sequence implicated in domestication is shared between the two events, the Mesoamerican signal falling mainly on chromosomes Pv02, Pv07 and Pv09 and the Andean on Pv01, Pv02 and Pv10. Reliability 0.9 - a major multi-author genome paper in a leading journal, used here only for its own results and not for its historical framing." }, { "id": "chacon-martinez-2017-lima-bean-domestication", "title": "Testing Domestication Scenarios of Lima Bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.) in Mesoamerica: Insights from Genome-Wide Genetic Markers", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5601060/", "publisher": "Frontiers in Plant Science 8:1551", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed article by Maria Isabel Chacon-Sanchez and Jaime Martinez-Castillo, 2017, DOI 10.3389/fpls.2017.01551, open access under CC BY, read in full text on 2026-08-17. Cited here for the structure of the lima bean: three gene pools, Mesoamerican I in central-western Mexico, Mesoamerican II running from southern and eastern Mexico into Central America, and Andean I in Ecuador and northern Peru; the authors' finding that \"higher statistical support was given to the single domestication scenario in central-western Mexico followed by admixture with wild populations\", so that the Mesoamerican II landraces are read as admixed rather than as an independent domestication, while Andean I is a separate centre. Reliability 0.85 - a model-comparison study whose conclusion is explicitly a matter of relative statistical support among competing scenarios, not a settled result, and it is used here with that stated." }, { "id": "gioia-2019-bean-ssr-diversity", "title": "Evolution of SSR diversity from wild types to U.S. advanced cultivars in the Andean and Mesoamerican domestications of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6354994/", "publisher": "PLoS ONE 14(1):e0211342", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed article by Tania Gioia, Giuseppina Logozzo, Stefania Marzario, Pierluigi Spagnoletti Zeuli and Paul Gepts, 2019, DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0211342, open access under CC BY, read in full text on 2026-08-17. Cited here for the diversity cost of the bean's journey out of the Americas: the reported total post-domestication reduction in number of alleles, allele richness and genetic diversity of 0.33, 0.39 and 0.17 for the Andean gene pool and 0.27, 0.32 and 0.16 for the Mesoamerican, and the authors' own observation that modern breeding removed more diversity than the original domestication did." }, { "id": "pelaez-2019-chia-transcriptome", "title": "Comparative transcriptome analysis of cultivated and wild seeds of Salvia hispanica (chia)", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6611817/", "publisher": "Scientific Reports 9:9761, Nature Publishing Group", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed article by Pablo Pelaez, Domancar Orona-Tamayo, Salvador Montes-Hernandez, M. Eugenia Valverde, Octavio Paredes-Lopez and Angelica Cibrian-Jaramillo, 2019, DOI 10.1038/s41598-019-45895-5, open access under CC BY 4.0, read in full text on 2026-08-17. Cited here for four things: that \"in Pre-Columbian civilizations such as the Mayas and the Aztecs chia was as important as corn and bean\", used as a food source from at least 3500 BC and extensively cultivated between 1500 and 900 BC \"for consumption of its seeds as an energy source, and for medical, artistic and religious purposes\"; that after the Spanish conquest \"the cultivation of chia was almost eradicated, probably due to European interests in other Mesoamerican crops and because of its sacred symbolism\", with consequent loss of traditional knowledge and rapid disappearance of wild and domesticated populations; that the seed oil runs 56 to 64 per cent alpha-linolenic acid; and that genetic diversity is higher in wild than in commercial domesticated accessions. Reliability 0.85, with the note that the near-eradication sentence is the paper's introductory history rather than its own research, and is hedged by its own \"probably\" - the claims resting on it here are pitched below the ones resting on its transcriptome results." }, { "id": "ali-2012-chia-promising-future", "title": "The Promising Future of Chia, Salvia hispanica L.", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3518271/", "publisher": "Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology 2012:171956", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Narrative review by Norlaily Mohd Ali, Swee Keong Yeap, Wan Yong Ho, Boon Kee Beh, Sheau Wei Tan and Soon Guan Tan, 2012, DOI 10.1155/2012/171956, read in full text on 2026-08-17. Cited here only for the seed's composition - \"from 25% to 40% oil\", of which about 60 per cent is omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid and 20 per cent omega-6 linoleic acid - as a second witness to the figure given by Pelaez and colleagues. Reliability 0.7: it is a short narrative review rather than an experimental or archival study, and it was checked on 2026-08-17 for the historical material this corpus wanted and does NOT contain it - it says nothing about the post-conquest collapse of chia cultivation and nothing about chia oil as a varnish, so neither claim is bound to it. Recorded so that a later run does not re-open it expecting history." }, { "id": "mendieta-libro-iv-cap-xvi-escuelas-y-matronas", "title": "Historia eclesiástica indiana, libro IV, capítulo XVI — del modo que se tiene en enseñar á los niños y niñas, y de las matronas que ayudaron mucho en el ministerio de la Iglesia", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=e0Aa0Glxa6UC&pg=PA418", "publisher": "Fray Gerónimo de Mendieta, written at the end of the sixteenth century; first published by Joaquín García Icazbalceta, Mexico, Antigua Librería, 1870. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Registered apart from the libro IV capítulo XV entry on the Colegio de Santa Cruz already in this file, because it is a different chapter making different claims and must not borrow that entry's page warrant. Reliability sits below the tier for the two reasons the other Mendieta entries give: what is printed is an editor's text established in 1870 from manuscript, and the author is a Franciscan writing up his own order's mission — this chapter expressly against the \"siniestra opinion\" some held of the Indians, which is the stated purpose of the chapter that follows it. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-17 — PA418, PA419, PA420, PA421. Contents relied on: the close of cap. XV, where the teaching of the Indians' own medicine at the college \"que ellos usan en conocimiento de yerbas y raices\" is said to have stopped, \"mas esto todo se acabó\", the college by then serving little more than to teach the Indian boys of Tlatelulco \"á leer y á escribir y buenas costumbres\"; the heading of \"CAPÍTULO XVI\"; the walled patio before the church of every monastery, made so that on feast days the whole town could hear mass and preaching in the patio because the church body held only the weekday devout; the school built beside the church in every town, commonly on the north side, where the cantores gathered each working day after high mass to prepare what was to be sung, sang a motete \"en canto de órgano\" after the elevation even on ferial days, taught the chant to those who did not know it and the menestriles taught one another; the separate room in the same school where \"se enseñan á leer y escribir los niños hijos de la gente mas principal, despues que han sabido la doctrina cristiana, la cual solamente se enseña á los hijos de la gente plebeya allá fuera en el patio, y sabida esta los despiden para que vayan á ayudar á sus padres en sus oficios, granjerías ó trabajos\"; the exception and its effect, \"aunque en algunas partes hubo descuido en hacer esta diferencia (especialmente en pueblos pequeños, donde es poca la gente), que sin distincion se enseñan todos los niños, hijos de principales y de plebeyos, á leer y escribir en las escuelas, y de aquí se sigue que en los tales pueblos vienen á regir y mandar los plebeyos, siendo elegidos para los oficios de la república por mas hábiles y suficientes\"; the girls, \"así hijas de mayores como de menores, indiferentemente\", taught the doctrine in graded corrillos — per signum, Pater noster and Ave María, then Credo and Salve Regina, then the commandments of God, then the articles of the faith, the commandments of the Church and the sacraments — \"todo esto en su propria lengua\"; the girls continuing in the patios \"hasta que se casan, ó poco menos\", and the author's own recollection, \"Yo he tenido (siendo guardian en algun pueblo) mas de trescientas doncellas casaderas, juntas en el patio de la iglesia, enseñándose unas á otras\"; the \"matronas ó madres espirituales (que así las llaman ellas), señaladas por sus barrios, que las traen á la iglesia y las guardan, y las vuelven á sus casas\", the church alguaciles deputed to watch over them and the old men who guided the small children to and from the school; the patios swept and planted \"con árboles, puestos por órden y renglera\", cypresses and orange trees in the hot country; the matronas of past times \"particularmente en el contorno de México, en Suchimilco, Tezcuco, Guatitlan, Tlalmanalco y Tepepulco, y hácia lo de Tlascala, Cholula, Guaxocingo, Tepeaca y Tehuacan\", who persevered in perpetual continence \"á manera de beatas, no porque ellas hiciesen algun voto (á lo menos público)\"; their teaching of doctrine and prayers to other women, their leadership of the confraternities of the Santísimo Sacramento and Nuestra Señora — \"en algunos pueblos se rigen tan principal y aun mas principalmente por medio de estas matronas, que de los hombres\" — their service in the hospitals and to the sick, their preparing of the ignorant for confession and communion and their gathering in of single women; the providential and climatic register of the praise, Augustine on the \"devoto sexo feminil\" and \"el principal planeta que en esta region reina\"; the named woman, \"una Ana de la Cruz, natural del pueblo de Tlatelulco (que es como barrio por sí de la ciudad de México), india devotísima y bienhechora de la órden del padre S. Francisco\"; the author's statement of decline and the causes he gives for it, \"Ahora en muy pocas partes hay de estas matronas ó beatas que se ejerciten en semejantes obras espirituales, por haberse disminuido mucho la gente que solia haber, y porque dicen tienen harto que hacer en buscar lo que han menester para su sustento, y para pagar su tributo y otras imposiciones que siempre les van añadiendo\"; and the heading and opening of \"CAPÍTULO XVII\", which states the chapter's polemical purpose — to confound \"la siniestra opinion que algunos han tenido y tienen de los indios, diciendo que no son verdaderamente cristianos\"." }, { "id": "torquemada-tomo-iii-libro-xv-cap-xliii-colegio-de-santa-cruz", "title": "Monarquía indiana, tercera parte, libro XV, capítulo XLIII — de la fundación del Colegio de Santa Cruz, que se edificó en esta ciudad de México, en la parte de Tlatelolco, para enseñar á los indios la lengua latina", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=3lZfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA113", "publisher": "Fray Juan de Torquemada, O.F.M.; Madrid, en la Oficina y a costa de Nicolas Rodriguez Franco, 1723, con privilegio. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Registered apart from the tomo III entry already in this file because it is a different book and chapter. Reliability is set below that entry's 0.8 for a reason established by direct comparison during this reading rather than assumed: this chapter is not an independent witness. Its text follows Mendieta's libro IV, capítulos XV and XVI almost word for word — the opening column of PA113 carries Mendieta's closing paragraph on the decline of the matronas (\"Aora en mui pocas partes ay destas Matronas, ò Beatas, que se egerciten en semejantes Obras Espirituales, por averse disminuido mucho la Gente, que solia aver, y porque dicen tienen harto, que hacer, en buscar lo que han menester, para su sustento, y pagar su Tributo, y otras Imposiciones, que siempre les han añadido\"), and PA114 opens the contradiction passage with \"Ninguna cosa ay, en este Mundo, por buena, y provechosa que sea, que deje de tener contradicion\", both matching the 1870 Mendieta text on PA421 and PA416 of the volume also registered here. Where the two agree they should be counted as one source. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-17 — PA113, PA114, PA115. Contents relied on: the chapter heading; the endowment of the college by the viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza \"à su costa\" with estancias and haciendas, the collegians to be \"Niños de diez, à doce Años, Hijos de los Señores, ò Principales, de los Maiores Pueblos, ò Provincias de la Nueva-España, traiendo aqui dos, ò tres, de cada Cabecera, ò Pueblo Principal, porque todos participasen deste Beneficio\"; the opening procession with the viceroy, \"el Obispo de Mexico, Don Frai Juan Çumarraga\" and the bishop of Santo Domingo Don Sebastian Ramirez de Fuenleal; the dormitory, refectory and night watch; the masters Fr. Arnaldo de Bassacio, Fr. Bernardino de Sahagún — \"que estuvo en este Colegio, quarenta Años\" — Fr. Andrés de Olmos, Fr. Juan de Gaona, Fr. Francisco de Bustamante and Fr. Juan Fucher; the objections to the study and Torquemada's answer, that through the Latinist collegians the friars learned the language perfectly, translated the doctrine and treatises with their help and the printers printed them \"que de otra manera no pudieran\", and that by the same sufficiency they were chosen \"por Jueces, y Governadores en la Republica\"; the loss of favour after the death of Don Luis de Velasco the elder and the complaint that later governors wished to apply the Indians' benefit to Spaniards; and the passage on Don Antonio Valeriano — \"Indio, Natural del Pueblo de Azcaputzalco, vna legua desta Ciudad, Governador de la parte de San Juan, que llaman Tenuchtitlan\", who \"aviendo salido buen Latino, Logico, y Filosofo, sucediò à sus Maestros arriba nombrados, en leer la Gramatica, en el Colegio, algunos Años: y despues desto fue elegido por Governador de Mexico, y Governò mas de treinta y cinco Años, à los Indios desta Ciudad, con grande aceptacion de los Virreies, y edificacion de los Españoles: y por ser Hombre de mui buen Talento, tuvo noticia el Rei dèl, y le escriviò vna Carta mui favorable, haciendole en ella mucha merced: el qual muriò el Año de mil y seiscientos y cinco: y à su Entierro, que fue en el Convento de San Francisco, en la Capilla de San Joseph, se hallaron muchos Gentios, así de Indios, como de Españoles, y fueron los Colegiales deste Colegio, à asistir en èl, porque avia sido Lector dèl (como queda dicho) y su Cuerpo llevaron en ombros los Religiosos, desde la entrada del Patio, hasta la Sepultura\"." }, { "id": "torquemada-tomo-iii-libro-xvii-cap-xix-favores-del-emperador", "title": "Monarquía indiana, tercera parte, libro XVII, capítulo XIX — de los favores que el emperador Carlos V dio para la doctrina y cristiandad de los indios", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=3lZfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA261", "publisher": "Fray Juan de Torquemada, O.F.M.; Madrid, en la Oficina y a costa de Nicolas Rodriguez Franco, 1723, con privilegio. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "A chapter that is a catalogue of royal grants, written by a Franciscan provincial listing what the crown gave his own order's mission, so it is an interested inventory and the reliability is set accordingly; the dates and the terms of the cédulas it reports could not be checked here against the cédulas themselves, and the object citing it says so. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-17 — PA261 and PA262. Contents relied on: the cédulas of 1551 ordering the president and oidores of the Audiencia of Mexico that the tasaciones of what the Indians had to give, both to the crown and to the encomenderos, be moderated \"teniendo siempre respeto, à que los Indios no fuesen agraviados, sino que anduviesen descansados, y relevados: de manera, que antes enriqueciesen, que empobreciesen\", and the cédula of 7 June 1551 on the harm of paying tribute in gold dust; the cédula given at Valladolid on 20 November 1536 compelling encomenderos to keep ministers of the church in the towns of their encomienda; the cédula given at Monzón on 2 August 1533 assigning a quarter of the tributes to the building and ornament of churches and the maintenance of their ministers; the cédula given at Granada on 9 November 1526 ordering that up to twenty boys, \"Hijos de los mas Principales Indios, y de los mas habiles\", be sent to Spain to be raised, taught and instructed in monasteries and colleges \"para que despues de industriados, y bien enseñados, bolviendo à sus Tierras, instruiesen à sus Naturales en lo vno, y en lo otro, pues de ellos tomarian mejor qualquier cosa, que de otros estraños\"; the abandonment of that scheme because when the friars of San Francisco began to designate and collect the boys \"fue tanto el sentimiento, que sus Padres, y Deudos hacian (pareciendoles, que se los llevaban Cautivos, para nunca mas verlos) que los huvieron de dexar, y dàr cuenta à su Magestad\"; the six \"Dueñas, Beatas, exercitadas en mucha virtud\" sent to New Spain by the Empress in 1530, with the order to the president and oidores that at the cost of the royal revenues they build suitable houses \"para recoger en ellas las Niñas, Hijas de los Indios Principales, y otras de Populares, y enseñarles, juntamente con la Doctrina Christiana, los Oficios Mugeriles de las Españolas, y manera de vivir honesta, y virtuosamente\"; the outcome as the chapter states it, \"Esto se cumpliò luego, y puso por obra; puesto, que no duro muchos Años: mas con todo eso, de las Indeçuelas, que allì se criaron, salieron muchas buenas Mugeres, que quedaron con el nombre de Beatas, y aiudaron mucho à los Frailes en las cosas de la Doctrina, y Policia Christiana\"; the grants made instead to those gathered in Mexico — \"A los del Colegio de Santa Cruz, en el Barrio de Tlatelulco, donde se enseñaban en la Latinidad, mandò dàr en cada vn Año mil Pesos de Minas, por ciertos Años\", three hundred ducats for some years to those who taught in the chapel of San José \"à Leer, y Escrivir, Cantar, y Tañer Instrumentos de la Iglesia\", six arrobas of oil a year to each monastery for the lamp of the Sacrament, an arroba and a half of wine a year for each priest for the masses, a hundred pesos a year for the infirmaries of San Francisco de Mexico and the convent of Los Ángeles; and the order to build \"vn Hospital Real, junto à San Francisco de Mexico\" so that \"los Indios Enfermos no quedasen desamparados\"." }, { "id": "novoa-2015-introduced-invasive-cacti", "title": "Introduced and invasive cactus species — a global review", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4318432/", "publisher": "Ana Novoa, Johannes J. Le Roux, Mark P. Robertson, John R. U. Wilson and David M. Richardson, AoB PLANTS 7:plu078, Oxford University Press (published online 2014, volume dated 2015), open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed global review of cactus introductions and invasions, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here for four things: that \"cacti are among the first plants that were brought back from the Americas by European explorers in the 15th century and soon became common in European collections and gardens\"; that \"one of the earliest reasons for introduction, however, was for use as drought-tolerant crops and for hedging, with Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. being by far the most utilized\"; that 57 of the 1922 cactus species recorded are invasive, that O. ficus-indica is the most widespread invasive cactus (22 countries), and that the three worst-invaded countries are South Africa (35 invasive species), Australia (26) and Spain (24); and that the FAO \"has revived the interest in cactus cultivation\" in response to climate change, land degradation and diminishing food security. Reliability 0.85 rather than higher because the historical sentences are framing for an invasion-biology paper and carry no archival citation; the numbers, which are the paper's own compiled dataset, carry the tier. It names no individual introducer and no date for the first Old World planting, and nothing of that kind is taken from it." }, { "id": "martins-2023-opuntia-ficus-indica-review", "title": "Physicochemical, Nutritional, and Medicinal Properties of Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. and Its Main Agro-Industrial Use: A Review", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10096643/", "publisher": "Mariana Martins, Maria H. Ribeiro and Cristina M. M. Almeida, Plants 12(7):1512, MDPI, 2023, open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed review of the prickly pear as a crop and a food, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here only for its agronomy and composition: that the plant \"adapts to extreme weather conditions, has rapid growth in poor soils, and has little need for water\", making it viable in arid areas with annual rainfall under 250 mm; that the cladodes are \"profitable feed for ruminant animals\"; that the species is among the most efficient plants in water use and is used against soil erosion and desertification; that cladodes are 88 to 95 per cent water at about 27 kcal per 100 g and the fruit 31 to 50 kcal per 100 g; and that of roughly 590,000 hectares grown worldwide Mexico holds 70 per cent and Italy 3.3 per cent. Reliability 0.7 and no higher for a specific reason worth recording: the review's own opening sentence places the plant's origin in \"South America, namely Mexico\", which is wrong on its face, and it repeats the commonplace that the species \"was introduced in Spain, by Christopher Columbus, in 1493\" without a source. Neither the origin nor the introduction date is taken from this source, and no claim in this corpus rests on them." }, { "id": "smeriglio-2021-prickly-pear-betalains", "title": "Prickly Pear Betalain-Rich Extracts as New Promising Strategy for Intestinal Inflammation: Plant Complex vs. Main Isolated Bioactive Compounds", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8476807/", "publisher": "Antonella Smeriglio, Camilla De Francesco, Marcella Denaro and Domenico Trombetta, Frontiers in Pharmacology 12:722398, Frontiers Media, 2021, open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed pharmacology paper on betalain-rich extracts of Opuntia ficus-indica, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here for one narrow thing: the identity of the pigments in prickly pear fruit, namely the betaxanthin indicaxanthin (yellow-orange, the most abundant, 22.27 to 98.01 g per 100 g of dry extract depending on fruit colour) and the betacyanin betanin (red-purple, up to 27.30 g per 100 g of dry extract in red peel), with the fruit sampled harvested at Messina in Sicily in August 2019. The paper says nothing whatever about urine, excretion or the sixteenth century, and this object does not use it to explain Oviedo's 1515 episode — only to name the class of pigment the fruit carries." }, { "id": "zheng-2021-dragon-fruit-genome", "title": "The chromosome-level genome of dragon fruit reveals whole-genome duplication and chromosomal co-localization of betacyanin biosynthetic genes", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7943767/", "publisher": "Jishan Zheng, Lyndel W. Meinhardt, Ricardo Goenaga, Dapeng Zhang and Yanbin Yin, Horticulture Research 8:63, Nanjing Agricultural University / Oxford University Press, 2021, open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed genome paper on Hylocereus undatus, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here for the plant's range and its pigment genetics: that the species \"is generally considered a native to Southern Mexico and Central America\"; that it \"has been commercially grown throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world, particularly in Southeast Asia and Southern Mexico\", that Vietnam has some 40,000 hectares worth about 895 million US dollars a year, and that dragon fruit ranks as the fifth most popular tropical fruit in Asia; that the rind carries a high content of betacyanins used as colouring in the food and cosmetic industries; and that five genes of the betacyanin biosynthetic pathway are co-localised in a 12 Mb region of one chromosome, unlike Beta vulgaris where they sit on three, with CYP76AD-alpha showing a log2 fold change of 10.2 from white to red pulp. Reliability 0.85. The paper makes no historical claim about who first described or moved the plant, and none is taken from it." }, { "id": "meanwell-2020-mayapan-blowpipes", "title": "Blowpipes and their metalworking applications: New evidence from Mayapán, Yucatán, Mexico", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7508413/", "publisher": "Jennifer L. Meanwell, Elizabeth H. Paris, Carlos Peraza Lope, Linda M. Seymour and Admir Masic, PLoS ONE 15(9):e0238885, Public Library of Science, 2020, open access under CC BY, read via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed archaeometallurgical study of metalworking debris from Mayapán, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here only for what it reports about pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican metal casting, which is its own subject: that metallurgy began \"in West Mexico by around AD 600\"; that copper bells were the dominant metal artefact class at the site, 482 of 559 recovered metal items; that \"the identification of miscast copper bells, crucibles filled with casting debris, and metallurgical ceramics strongly support the presence of a local metalworking industry\"; that the techniques adapted locally included \"remelting, open-mold, and lost-wax casting\"; and that the two ceramic tuyères identified are \"to our knowledge... the first archaeologically documented tuyères for pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica\". Reliability 0.85 rather than higher because the tuyère identification is the paper's own new and explicitly first-of-its-kind interpretation of two objects, resting on dimensions, internal perforation, vitrification and copper prills; the bell counts and the casting techniques are the better-established part of the paper and carry the claims here. The article is about Postclassic Yucatán and says nothing about colonial-period metallurgy or about bell-founding after 1521; no claim in this corpus is bound to it beyond the pre-Hispanic evidence." }, { "id": "huarte-examen-de-ingenios-madrid-1668", "title": "Examen de ingenios para las ciencias, en el qual el lector hallará la manera de su ingenio, para escoger la ciencia que mas ha de aprouechar, y la diferencia de habilidades que ay en los hombres", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=h0G34oxBpVoC&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Doctor Juan Huarte de San Juan; \"agora nueuamente emendado por el mismo Autor, y añadidas muchas cosas curiosas, y prouechosas\"; con licencia en Madrid, por Melchor Sanchez, a costa de Gabriel de Leon, mercader de libros, 1668. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Digitised sheets of the 1668 Madrid printing, opened and read as page images on 2026-08-17. Reliability is set well below the tier for three reasons stated here so that no later run has to rediscover them. First, this is a reissue published roughly seventy-four years after the author's own revision and ninety-three after the first setting of 1575; the title page says the text was \"nueuamente emendado por el mismo Autor\" but names no earlier edition, gives no collation, and says nothing about what was emended or removed, so the wording quoted from it is the wording of the emended version and cannot be attributed to the 1575 text. Second, the copy is defective and stained at the front: PP1 to PP4 are binding and blank leaves, PP3 carries no printed matter at all, and the title page at PP5 is water-damaged with several words legible only in part (they are marked with brackets where quoted). Third, the volume's OCR search layer is unreliable — jscmd=SearchWithinVolume returns number_of_results 0 for \"memoria\", \"imaginativa\" and \"examinadores\", all of which occur on pages read here, because the long s and the worn types defeat it; the volume must be navigated by page id, not by search. Pages opened and read 2026-08-17: PP3 (blank); PP5, the title page with the Madrid 1668 imprint of Melchor Sánchez, the note of the author's emendation and the dedication to captain Juan de Valladares of Lima; PP6 (stained blank verso with a library stamp); PP7, the opening of that dedication; PA1 to PA3, the first proemio \"A LA MAGESTAD DEL REY DON FELIPE Nuestro Señor\" in full, with the proposed law that each man practise only the art for which he has natural talent, the Diputados who were to discover each child's ingenio in tender age and make him study the fitting science \"por fuerça… y no dexarlo a su eleccion\", and the remark that the penultimate chapter tells the king what trade he himself would have been fit for; PA2 in particular for the examiners of ingenio to be set beside the examiners of Latin, the harms named for theology, medicine and law, and the four questions Huarte says nobody had answered with distinction or clarity; PA3 to PA5, the \"SEGVNDO Proemio. AL LECTOR\", including the Platonic framing, the doctrine that any soul is subject to the temperament and composition of the body as its substantial form, God's organising of Adam's and Eve's brain, and the assertion that the natural composition a woman has in the brain \"no es capaz de muchos ingenios, ni de mucha sabiduria\". The body of the treatise beyond PA5 was not read and nothing is claimed from it." }, { "id": "oviedo-historia-1851-libro-viii-guayabo", "title": "Historia general y natural de las Indias, libro VIII, capítulo XIX, 'Del árbol llamado guayabo é su fructa' - the text of Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, tomo I, pages 304-305", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=yw4-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA304", "publisher": "Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés; publícala la Real Academia de la Historia, cotejada con el códice original por D. José Amador de los Ríos. Primera parte. Madrid, Imprenta de la Real Academia de la Historia, 1851. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "A page-scoped entry for the guava chapter of the same 1851 Real Academia volume registered here as oviedo-historia-1851-tomo1; the reliability deduction below the tier is the one recorded there, because the author is a royal official and chronicler writing for the crown that employed him and a declared opponent of Las Casas. What the sheets are evidence of is the text as the Academy's editor established it from the codices, not the wording of the Seville sheets of 1535. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-17 - PA304, carrying the end of capítulo XVIII on the hanón and the opening of capítulo XIX, \"Del árbol llamado guayabo é su fructa\", with the wild-versus-cultivated distinction (\"Hay muchos guayabos salvajes; pero son menores que los que se cultivan, en lo qual tienen mucho cuydado los indios\"), the two kinds, the comparison of the tree to an orange tree and the leaf to a laurel's, the four quarters of flesh, and the advice to pick the fruit green because when fully ripe it fills with worms; PA305, running head DE INDIAS. LIB. VIII. CAP. XIX., with the astringent use (\"son buenas para el fluxo del vientre, é restriñen, quando se comen no del todo maduras\"), the naming (\"Llámasse esta mançana ó poma guayaba, porque el árbol se llama guayabo\"), the crown of small leaves on each fruit, the jasmine-scented flower of one kind, the statement that \"Los indios ponen estos árboles en sus heredamientos, é lo mismo haçen los chripstianos\", the acquired taste and the grit of the seeds, and the six-year decline of the tree with the instruction to replant in good ground. The chapter of capítulo XX on the mamey begins on the same page and nothing is claimed from it here." }, { "id": "oviedo-historia-1851-libro-viii-papaya", "title": "Historia general y natural de las Indias, libro VIII, capítulo XXXIII, on the tree called papaya, higos del mastuerço and olocoton - the text of Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, tomo I, pages 323-324", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=yw4-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA323", "publisher": "Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés; publícala la Real Academia de la Historia, cotejada con el códice original por D. José Amador de los Ríos. Primera parte. Madrid, Imprenta de la Real Academia de la Historia, 1851. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "A second page-scoped entry for the 1851 Real Academia volume already registered as oviedo-historia-1851-tomo1, with the same deduction from tier to reliability for the author's position. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-17 - PA323, running head DE INDIAS. LIB. VIII. CAP. XXXIII., carrying the chapter heading that gives the three names (\"Del árbol que en esta Isla Española llaman papaya, y en la Tierra-Firme los llaman los españoles los higos del mastuerço, y en la provinçia de Nicaragua llaman á tal árbol olocoton\"), the coast from Nombre de Dios through Quebore and Veragua where the plant was met, the fruit as large as melons borne on the trunk, the seeds tasting of cress from which the Spanish name comes, the report that they were first found in the land of the cacique Quebore, the hidalgo Alonso de Valverde who held that cacique in encomienda and carried the fruit to Darién where the Christians sowed the seed, the onward carriage to Hispaniola and the other islands where \"aqui los llaman papayas\", and the author's judgement \"al qual yo tengo mas por planta que no por árbol\" with the hollow spongy trunk offered as the evidence; PA324, the flowering and fruiting cycle, the exhaustion of each stem after its year, the five or six years of bearing after which the fruit is small and worthless, the note that \"ponen los indios de la simiente otros antes que aquellos se acaben\", and the observation that a plant bearing round fruit never bears long fruit nor the reverse, \"porque son distintas naturas é castas desta fructa; mas en el sabor é en todo lo demas, todos son una misma cosa\"." }, { "id": "oviedo-historia-1851-libro-xiii-manati", "title": "Historia general y natural de las Indias, libro XIII, capítulo IX, 'Del manatí y de su grandeza é forma, é de la manera que algunas veçes los indios tomaban este grande animal con el pexe reverso' - tomo I, pages 433-436", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=yw4-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA433", "publisher": "Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés; publícala la Real Academia de la Historia, cotejada con el códice original por D. José Amador de los Ríos. Primera parte. Madrid, Imprenta de la Real Academia de la Historia, 1851. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "A third page-scoped entry for the 1851 Real Academia volume registered as oviedo-historia-1851-tomo1, same deduction from tier to reliability. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-17 - PA433, the close of capítulo VIII on the hicoteas and the opening of capítulo IX with its full heading, the declaration that of the manatee \"ni Plinio habló, ni el Alberto Magno en su Proprietatibus Rerum escribió, ni en España los hay\", the head like an ox's, the small eyes, the \"dos tocones con que nada, gruessos, en lugar de braços\", the hide without scales, the grazing at the river's edge, and the crossbow-and-harpoon hunt from a canoe with a corked line and an ox-cart to carry the carcass; PA434, the meat that cannot be told from beef, the cecina that keeps without corrupting and which the author carried from Santo Domingo to Ávila in 1531 \"estando alli la Emperatriz, nuestra señora\", the harpooning in the river Ozama and the strong nets, the two stones between the brains burnt and ground and taken fasting in white wine for the mal de la hijada with Pliny cited in the margin, the size of fourteen or fifteen feet, the derivation of the name from the two short hands with the flat contradiction of Pedro Mártir's derivation from the lake Guaniabo (\"lo qual es falso\"), and the absence of ears; PA435, the hide cured into straps and shoe soles, the tail fried down into a manteca that never goes rancid and burns in a lamp, the statement \"Tiene el manatí dos tetas en los pechos el que es hembra, é assi pare dos hijos é los cria á la teta\", the fishery of manatees and turtles with the pexe reverso in Jamaica and Cuba and formerly in Hispaniola \"quando ovo muchos indios de los naturales della\", and the rearing of the reverso tame in salt water, tied on a line and exhorted in the fishermen's own language as \"manicato\", meaning brave and of good heart; PA436, the detaching of the reverso with soft words and thanks, its dorsal disc described as \"escamas á manera de gradas, como el paladar ó mandíbula alta de la boca de un hombre\" set from the head to the middle of the back, and the author's own explanation that the fishermen's belief that the fish understands human speech \"viene de no entender ellos que aquello es propriedad de la natura\", introduced by the phrase \"Es tan liviana esta generaçion de aquestos indios\"." }, { "id": "arevalo-marin-2021-taming-of-guava", "title": "The Taming of Psidium guajava: Natural and Cultural History of a Neotropical Fruit", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8505677/", "publisher": "Arévalo-Marín E, Casas A, Landrum L, Shock MP, Alvarado-Sizzo H, Ruiz-Sanchez E, Clement CR. Frontiers in Plant Science 12:714763 (2021). Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed synthesis of archaeobotanical, ethnobotanical and genetic evidence on guava, read as full HTML text on 2026-08-17. Used for the semi-domesticated status of the species, the proposal that domestication began in the lowlands of south-western Amazonia, the archaeological appearance on the Peruvian coast by about 7,000 years BP and in Mesoamerica by about 2,600 years BP, the argument that introduced European livestock supplied dispersers for a megafaunal fruit and so enhanced gene flow between previously isolated populations, the early Spanish medicinal record it credits to Cervantes de Salazar for diarrhoea and to Cieza de León for stomach illness in Colombia, the European distaste it quotes (\"It stinks like a bug, and it was an abomination to eat it\"), and the invasiveness statement \"In numerous tropical and subtropical countries where guava is cultivated, it is often quite invasive\". Reliability at 0.85 rather than higher because the domestication origin it proposes is explicitly a hypothesis drawn from modelling and scattered archaeobotany, and because its early-colonial citations are taken at second hand rather than from the imprints." }, { "id": "urquia-2019-galapagos-guava", "title": "Psidium guajava in the Galapagos Islands: Population genetics and history of an invasive species", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6415804/", "publisher": "Urquía D, Gutierrez B, Pozo G, Pozo MJ, Espín A, Torres ML. PLoS ONE 14(3):e0203737 (2019), Public Library of Science. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed microsatellite study of the introduced guava of the Galápagos, read as full HTML text on 2026-08-17. Used for the introduction of the first three trees by the settler Manuel J. Cobos on San Cristóbal about 1889-1890 for ornament, the species' standing as one of the 37 highly invasive plants of the archipelago and its settlement of uncultivated ground from the early 1900s, the finding that \"the San Cristobal P. guajava population is the origin of the plague that spread over the four inhabited islands\", the threat of hybridisation with the endemic congener Psidium galapageium, and the record that settlers \"tried to eradicate any plant or seedling that appeared to be P. guajava, to no success\"." }, { "id": "chavez-pesqueira-2016-wild-papaya-mesoamerica", "title": "Genetic diversity and structure of wild populations of Carica papaya in Northern Mesoamerica inferred by nuclear microsatellites and chloroplast markers", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5155600/", "publisher": "Chávez-Pesqueira M, Núñez-Farfán J. Annals of Botany 118(7):1293-1306 (2016), Oxford University Press. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed population-genetic survey of wild papaya, read as full HTML text on 2026-08-17. Used for the occurrence of wild populations in the lowland tropical and sub-tropical forests of Mesoamerica, the identification of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec zone as a diversity hotspot and tentative origin, the higher diversity of Mexican than Costa Rican populations and the authors' suggestion that the Costa Rican stands may be feral descendants of domesticated plants carrying a domestication bottleneck, and the proposal of domestication in this area by the Maya. The paper does not address post-contact dispersal and is not cited for it." }, { "id": "vanburen-2015-papaya-yh-chromosome", "title": "Origin and domestication of papaya Yh chromosome", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4381524/", "publisher": "VanBuren R, Zeng F, Chen C, Zhang J, Wai CM, Han J, Aryal R, Gschwend AR, Wang J, Na J-K, Huang L, Zhang L, Miao W, Gou J, Arro J, Guyot R, Moore RC, Wang M-L, Zee F, Charlesworth D, Moore PH, Yu Q, Ming R. Genome Research 25(4):524-533 (2015), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed comparative-genomic study of the papaya sex chromosomes, read as full HTML text on 2026-08-17. Used for the three sex forms of the species (female XX, male XY, hermaphrodite XYh), the dating of the hermaphrodite Yh chromosome to about 4,000 years ago with a 95% highest posterior density interval of 1,400-6,700 years, the statement that \"The low MSY3-Yh divergence supports the hypothesis that hermaphrodite papaya is a product of human domestication\", and the conclusion that \"This strongly suggests that the HSY resulted from papaya domestication by the Mayans or other indigenous cultures\". The wide credible interval on the date is stated in the object rather than being smoothed away." }, { "id": "kera-2024-papaya-fruit-sexes", "title": "Comparison of functional properties of unripe papaya fruits of different sexes", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11500600/", "publisher": "Kera K, Asada H, Kikuchi S, Saito S, Iijima M, Nakayama T, Suzuki H. Plant Biotechnology (Tokyo) 41(2) (2024), Japanese Society for Plant Biotechnology. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed metabolomic comparison of unripe papaya fruit from female and hermaphrodite plants, read as full HTML text on 2026-08-17. Cited here for one thing only, the horticultural statement it makes in passing - \"the fruit of female plants is round, whereas that of hermaphrodites is pyriform in shape\" - which is used to interpret a sixteenth-century observation about round and elongated fruit. Its own experimental finding, that the two sexes differ little in polyphenol content, proteolytic activity or metabolite profile, is not used here." }, { "id": "brito-2025-amazon-manatee-exploitation", "title": "Analyses of historical documents reveal past trends of exploitation of manatees (Trichechus inunguis) in the Amazon Basin (16th-19th centuries)", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12592855/", "publisher": "Brito C, Garcia AC, Nicholls J, Silva J, Vieira N. Open Research Europe (2025). Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed historical-ecology study of Amazonian manatee captures reconstructed from colonial and nineteenth-century documents, read as full HTML text on 2026-08-17. Used for the figure of about 14,030 documented captures across 52 documented years between 1533 and 1898 (minimum 8,301, maximum 19,220) and about 6,249 tonnes of biomass, for the concentration of 91 per cent of those captures in 1843-1898 and the peak year of 1860, for the authors' framing that \"the hunting of manatees was at the core of European colonisation strategies of the Americas within a framework of appropriation, use, and consumption of aquatic mammals\", for the pattern of royal fishing grounds established at river confluences beside Portuguese settlements, for the products taken (fresh, dried and salted meat, fat used as butter and oil, hides, bones), and for the IUCN Vulnerable listing of both manatee species. Reliability at 0.8: the totals are the authors' reconstruction from an admittedly incomplete documentary record, they say so, and their extrapolation to about 110,000 animals is offered explicitly as a hypothesis. The study concerns the Amazonian manatee and Portuguese America, not the West Indian manatee of the Spanish Caribbean, and the object says so where it cites it." }, { "id": "pluckhahn-thulman-2024-florida-manatee-baselines", "title": "Historical ecology reveals the 'surprising' direction and extent of shifting baselines for the Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris)", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11578630/", "publisher": "Pluckhahn TJ, Thulman DK. PLoS ONE (2024), Public Library of Science. Open access, read as full text in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed historical-ecology study combining 67 archaeological reports from the Florida Master Site File, 57 published archival accounts from the 1500s to 1959 and 455 newspaper accounts from 1867 to 1960, read as full HTML text on 2026-08-17. Used for the central claim that \"manatee populations in Florida were very small in the Precolonial and Colonial Periods, possibly representing infrequent in-migration from the Caribbean during favorable climate conditions\" and that manatees expanded in number and range only in the Territorial and Early Modern periods, for the negative archaeological finding that no manatee bones were identified in 54 reports on sites associated primarily or exclusively with the Precolonial Period, and for the authors' own caveats about recovery bias, small early samples and the possibility that manatee remains reached sites as trade goods. Registered at 0.8 because the argument runs against the general assumption in the literature and the authors themselves list the limits; it is cited here as a counterweight to a colonial-depletion narrative, not as a settled result." }, { "id": "feijoo-teatro-critico-t4-1773", "title": "Theatro critico universal, o Discursos varios en todo genero de materias, para desengaño de errores comunes. Tomo quarto", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=frkGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA109", "publisher": "Muy Ilustre Señor D. Fr. Benito Geronymo Feyjoó y Montenecro, Maestro General del Orden de San Benito, del Consejo de S. M.; nueva impresion, en la qual ván puestas las addicciones del Suplemento en sus lugares; Madrid, M.DCC.LXXIII, en la Imprenta Real de la Gazeta, con las licencias necesarias, á costa de la Real Compañia de Impresores y Libreros. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "The fourth tome of the Teatro critico universal, read as page scans on 2026-08-17 for discourse VI, \"Españoles Americanos\". Reliability is set below the tier for the reason the volume states on its own title page and for one the text supplies. This is the Madrid 1773 printing of a tome first published in 1730, and the title page says the additions of the Suplemento have been moved into their places in the text, so the wording read here is not guaranteed to be that of the first impression; and the author is arguing a thesis about a disputed matter rather than reporting observations of his own, his American evidence being testimony sent to him by correspondents and printed histories. The digitisation opens PP1 to PP4 as blank endpapers and the title page is at PR1, not in the PP range. Pages opened and read 2026-08-17: PR1, the title page with TOMO QUARTO, the statement of the nueva impresion, the Madrid 1773 imprint of the Imprenta Real de la Gazeta and the Real Compañia de Impresores y Libreros; PA109, the head-title ESPAÑOLES AMERICANOS, DISCURSO SEXTO, section I entire, with the opening on a pen employed against common errors injurious to a body of people and the account of how the author came to write the discourse after a correspondent objected to what he had printed in the second tome; PA112, the close of the eulogy of a nearly septuagenarian criollo who knows philosophy, chemistry, botany, anatomy and medicine, holds the office of Contador de Cuentas y particiones of the Real Audiencia and presides over an academy of mathematics and eloquence formed at his own expense, followed by number 11 on Don Joseph Vallejo and Coronel Don Nicolás de Castro Bolaño; PA119, the end of section V on the anticipated progress of the criollos in the faculties, sections VI and VII, with the sentence on what would be seen in Spain if the same method were practised and the list of authors who celebrate the wits of the criollos; PA123, sections VIII and IX, the refusal of the flattering version of the same error and the introduction of Don Antonio Peralta Castañeda as the closing witness." }, { "id": "feijoo-ilustracion-apologetica-1773", "title": "Ilustracion apologetica al primero, y segundo tomo del Teatro critico, donde se notan mas de quatrocientos descuidos al Autor del Anti-Teatro", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ugIBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA62", "publisher": "Mui Ilustre Señor D. Fr. Benito Geronimo Feijoó y Montenegro, Maestro General del Orden de S. Benito, del Consejo de S. M.; Madrid, M.DCC.LXXIII, por Miguel Escribano, calle Angosta de S. Bernardo, con las licencias necesarias, á costa de la Real Compañia de Impresores y Libreros. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Feijoo's reply to Salvador Joseph Mañer's Anti-Teatro critico, read as page scans on 2026-08-17. This is the Madrid 1773 printing of a piece first issued in 1730, which is why reliability sits below the tier; the second reason is that the text is a polemic answering a polemic, and it reports its opponent's objections in its own numbering and paraphrase rather than quoting them at length, so it is firm evidence of what Feijoo said he had argued and weaker evidence of what Mañer actually wrote. The title page is at PR1; PP1 to PP4 are blank endpapers. Pages opened and read 2026-08-17: PR1, the title page with the claim that more than four hundred oversights are noted against the author of the Anti-Teatro and that of the seventy imputed to the author of the Teatro critico sixty-nine and a half are struck out, the Madrid 1773 imprint of Miguel Escribano and the Real Compañia de Impresores y Libreros; PA62, the head-title DEFENSA DE LAS MUGERES, DISCURSO XVI, and numbers 1 to 6, in which Feijoo says he nearly passed the discourse over because Mañer had in substance done the same, states that the primary and almost total subject of the Defensa de las mugeres is the equality of women with men in understanding and that he proved it at length with various arguments, says Mañer touched none of those arguments with his pen, and answers the objections numbered 1 to 5, among them that men have more bodily vigour and that some discreet women have confessed their inferiority." }, { "id": "feijoo-obras-escogidas-bae-1863", "title": "Defensa de las mujeres, in Obras escogidas del Padre Fray Benito Jeronimo Feijoo y Montenegro (Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, desde la formacion del lenguaje hasta nuestros dias)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=MUlrvNftWQgC&pg=PA50", "publisher": "Coleccion con una noticia de su vida y juicio critico de sus escritos por Don Vicente de la Fuente; Madrid, M. Rivadeneyra, impresor-editor, calle de la Madera 8, 1863. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "The text of discourse XVI of the first tome of the Teatro critico as printed in the nineteenth-century Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, read as page scans on 2026-08-17. Registered primary because it is a reprint of an already printed text in the same language, and at reliability 0.7 for the distance: this is not a printing the author saw, its spelling is modernised throughout - the title reads \"Defensa de las mujeres\" where the eighteenth-century sheets read \"mugeres\" - and it stands inside an editor's selection rather than in the tome as Feijoo published it. No eighteenth-century printing of the first tome was reachable from this container and none is asserted anywhere in this corpus. The editorial matter bound in front of the same volume is registered separately as de-la-fuente-1863-noticia-de-feijoo and is not covered by this entry. Pages opened and read 2026-08-17: PR3, the title page with the Biblioteca de Autores Españoles heading, the statement of the editor Vicente de la Fuente and the Rivadeneyra imprint for 1863; PA50, the head-title DEFENSA DE LAS MUJERES and section I entire, with the opening on the gravity of the undertaking, the announcement that the author will treat at greatest length of women's aptitude for every kind of science, the refusal of the tally of women's vices and the rejection of the Cava and Eve commonplace; PA53, the end of the passage on shame as a preservative, section V entire with the refusal to give sentence in the suit, and the opening of section VI on women of political prudence." }, { "id": "de-la-fuente-1863-noticia-de-feijoo", "title": "Noticia de la vida y juicio critico de los escritos del Padre Feijoo, the editor's preliminary matter to Obras escogidas del Padre Feijoo", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=MUlrvNftWQgC&pg=PR10", "publisher": "Don Vicente de la Fuente, in Biblioteca de Autores Españoles; Madrid, M. Rivadeneyra, impresor-editor, 1863. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "The editor's life-and-writings notice printed in front of the same 1863 volume, registered separately from the Feijoo text so that the text does not borrow the editor's tier and the editor does not borrow the text's. Read as page scans on 2026-08-17. Reliability 0.75: the page used here is not the editor's own research but his transcription of a chronological series of Feijoo's writings and of the pieces published against them, which he states was published at the head of the first tome of the Teatro critico by an anonymous biographer, and he prints it inside quotation marks as such. It is therefore an eighteenth-century list at one remove, good for the sequence and the dates it gives and not evidence that every item in it was seen by anybody. Page opened and read 2026-08-17: PR10, the chronological list, giving the first tome of the Teatro critico as published on 3 September 1726, the anonymous \"Contra-defensa critica a favor de los hombres, contra la nueva Defensa de las mujeres\" on 17 December of the same year, the anonymous \"Estrado critico en defensa de las mujeres, contra el Teatro critico\" on 16 February 1727, the Antiteatro critico of Salvador Jose Mañer on 7 June 1729, the Ilustracion apologetica on 10 January 1730, the fourth tome of the Teatro critico on 26 December 1730, and Mañer's Antiteatro critico tomos II and III with the Replica satisfactoria on 7 August 1731, together with the medical pieces for and against the first tome." }, { "id": "martinez-puc-2024-meliponicultura-peninsula-yucatan", "title": "Sociodemographic characteristics and participation of women in meliponiculture from the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11657536/", "publisher": "Jesus Froylan Martinez-Puc and colleagues, Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 2024, doi 10.1186/s13002-024-00745-1, open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed survey of 56 meliponiculturists across Campeche, Quintana Roo and Yucatan, fieldwork of 2021-2023, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here for its background section and for two of its measured results: that meliponiculture was practised in the peninsula before the arrival of the Spaniards and that the Madrid Codex carries scenes of the way the Maya cared for the bees and their reproduction, especially Melipona beecheii; that M. beecheii is the culturally most important species of the region; that the region formerly reached densities of up to 500 colonies, a level the paper compares with the management of honeybees in medieval Europe; that Apis mellifera colonies were introduced from the United States in 1911 and that this greatly influenced the abandonment of meliponiculture, alongside forest fragmentation from extensive livestock farming, henequen and sugarcane; and that in the surveyed population 66 per cent of keepers are men and 34 per cent women, men holding on average 36.19 colonies and women 14.00, with no difference in honey yield per colony. The survey results are the paper's own work and are fully reported; the historical sentences are background carried on secondary literature, which is why the claims that use them sit below 0.9 and why no colonial tribute figure is taken from it - the paper gives none." }, { "id": "reyes-gonzalez-2014-abejas-sin-aguijon-michoacan", "title": "Diversity, local knowledge and use of stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponini) in the municipality of Nocupetaro, Michoacan, Mexico", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4061457/", "publisher": "Alejandro Reyes-Gonzalez and colleagues, Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 10:47, 2014, doi 10.1186/1746-4269-10-47, open access via PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed ethnobiological study of stingless bees and their use in a municipality of the Balsas basin, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here for the national count it reports - 46 species in 11 genera in Mexico, nearly 26 per cent of them endemic - for the eight species in six genera recorded in the study area, for the uses its informants describe (honey against cold, cough, bronchitis and other respiratory illnesses; honey and pollen eaten directly; wax made into the candles used at dia de muertos), for the transmission of the knowledge from fathers to sons in 85 per cent of the cases with women specialising in processing, for the yields reported (on average four nests a year giving six litres of honey and four kilograms of wax, the largest collectors ten to twelve nests giving eighteen litres and twenty-four kilograms), and for the dating of the collapse: 90 per cent of the local experts place the beginning of the decline in the 1960s, attributed to competition from Apis mellifera, land-use change, drought and pesticides. This is one municipality and the paper says so; the claims bound to it name the place rather than generalising to Mexico except for the national species count, which the paper takes from the systematic literature." }, { "id": "blomster-salazar-2020-etlatongo-ballcourt", "title": "Origins of the Mesoamerican ballgame: Earliest ballcourt from the highlands found at Etlatongo, Oaxaca, Mexico", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7069692/", "publisher": "Jeffrey P. Blomster and Víctor E. Salazar Chávez, Science Advances 6(11):eaay6964, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2020; open access, read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Excavation report on the earliest highland Mesoamerican ballcourt, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here only for what dates the game rather than for the architectural argument: that the excavators \"excavated the earliest highland Mesoamerican ballcourt, dating to 1374 BCE, at the site of Etlatongo, in the Mixtec region of Oaxaca\"; that the first structure is radiocarbon-dated to 1443 to 1305 BCE with a midpoint of 1374 BCE; that \"rubber balls used at Etlatongo would have been imported\", since the highland valley grows no rubber; and that ballcourts \"provided an important venue that promoted increasing differentiation of leaders and promoted interaction between polities of different regions\". Reliability 0.85 rather than higher because a single excavated court is a single data point for a regional origin claim, which the authors themselves frame as Early Formative villagers playing \"an important role\" rather than the only one." }, { "id": "blomster-2012-ballgame-oaxaca", "title": "Early evidence of the ballgame in Oaxaca, Mexico", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3361378/", "publisher": "Jeffrey P. Blomster, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109(21):8020-8025, 2012; read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Study of a ceramic ballplayer figurine from Etlatongo in the Mixteca Alta, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here for three statements that fix the material and the chronology: that the rubber \"comes from the rubber tree Castilla elastica, which occurs frequently along the coastal plains and southern region of Mexico and to the south\"; that the Etlatongo figurine dates to about 1400-1000 BCE, with earlier ceramic ballplayer figurines from El Opeño in West Mexico at about 1700 BCE and the oldest known court at Paso de la Amada, coastal Chiapas, at about 1600 BCE; and that \"the ritual paraphernalia and ideology associated with the game appear around 1400 BCE\". No claim here rests on the paper's interpretation of Olmec-style symbol diffusion, which is a contested question in the field." }, { "id": "valarezo-2021-ocotea-quixos-variability", "title": "Variability of the Chemical Composition of the Essential Oil from the Amazonian Ishpingo Species (Ocotea quixos)", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8272037/", "publisher": "Eduardo Valarezo, Alicia Vullien and Diana Conde-Rojas, Molecules 26(13):3961, MDPI, 2021; DOI 10.3390/molecules26133961; open access, read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Analytical study of leaf essential oil from Ecuadorian populations of Ocotea quixos, read on 2026-08-17 through PubMed Central because the publisher's own host does not answer from this container. Cited for the vernacular names — that the species is known by the Quechua name \"ishpingo\" and by the Spanish names \"canela\", \"canelo\", \"flor de canela\" and \"canela de la amazonía\", designations that relate to its smell, similar to cinnamon — for the traditional preparation of aromatic beverages from leaves and fruit calyces, and for the reported ranges of the leaf-oil constituents (E)-cinnamyl acetate, (E)-methyl cinnamate and trans-caryophyllene. The paper says nothing about colonial history, and nothing in this corpus is attributed to it on that subject." }, { "id": "gilardoni-2021-ocotea-quixos-enantioselective", "title": "Chemical and Enantioselective Analysis of the Essential Oils from Different Morphological Structures of Ocotea quixos (Lam.) Kosterm.", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8540073/", "publisher": "Gianluca Gilardoni, Melissa Montalván, Maria Vélez and Omar Malagón, Plants 10(10):2171, MDPI, 2021; DOI 10.3390/plants10102171; open access, read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Comparative analysis of the essential oils of cupules, bark and leaves of Ocotea quixos, read on 2026-08-17 in PubMed Central. Cited here for the part of the plant that is traded — that the primary commercial product consists of the dry cupules, the floral structures, while bark and leaves \"also present aromatic properties and are sometimes used as substitutes\" — for the traditional use as a food aroma \"due to its strong similarity with cinnamon\", for the distinct profiles of the three structures ((E)-methyl cinnamate in cupules, (E)-cinnamaldehyde in bark, (E)-cinnamyl acetate in leaves), and for the list of reported activities. The paper makes no historical identification of this species with the \"canela\" of sixteenth-century Spanish sources; that step is made explicitly and at reduced confidence in the object that cites it." }, { "id": "rojas-teorica-practica-fortificacion-1598", "title": "Teorica y practica de fortificacion, conforme las medidas y defensas destos tiempos, repartida en tres partes", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=LShhqsq1DzwC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Capitan Christoval de Rojas, ingeniero del Rey nuestro señor; en Madrid, por Luis Sanchez, año 1598. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "The first edition, read as page scans on 2026-08-17. Reliability sits below the tier because the author is an interested witness twice over: a salaried royal engineer writing about the worth of his own profession, and a lecturer publishing the course he had just given, so his account of how well his pupils learned is his own report of his own teaching. Pages opened and read 2026-08-17: PP5, the architectural title page with the Madrid imprint of Luis Sanchez, the dedication to Prince Philip III and the words \"Ingeniero del Rey nuestro señor\"; PP10 and PP11, the two leaves of the PROLOGO, with the lectures in the academia Real, the doctor printed there as Iulian Ferrofino reading Euclid, the Conde de Puñonrostro, the twenty years of study, Juan de Herrera and San Lorenço el Real, and Tiburcio Espanochi; PA1, chapter I on the three things that must concur in the soldier or engineer; PA3, the end of chapter III and the opening of chapter IIII on reconnoitring sites; PA4, the coastal siting doctrine and the opening of chapter V on Euclid; PA91, the third part on lime contracts and the deceits of the caleros. The volume's SearchWithinVolume layer was tested against a nonsense term on the same day and answered differently for real terms, so its hit lists were treated as genuine; every page cited here was nevertheless opened and read." }, { "id": "vargas-machuca-milicia-descripcion-1599", "title": "Milicia y descripcion de las Indias, por el capitan don Bernardo de Vargas Machuca, cauallero castellano, natural de la villa de Simancas", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=QwX4t_x6i3EC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "En Madrid, en casa de Pedro Madrigal, año M.D.XCIX. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "The 1599 first edition, read as page scans on 2026-08-17. Reliability is set well below the tier: the author is a frontier captain writing to advance his own claim to reward, dedicating the book to the President of the Council of the Indies, and the same man later wrote an apology against Las Casas, so the book is an excellent witness to what such a captain thought and did and a poor one for anything it asserts about the peoples he fought. The preliminaries are licensing apparatus and are read here as that. Pages opened and read 2026-08-17: PP5, the title page with the arms, the Madrid imprint of Pedro Madrigal and the dedication to the licenciado Paulo de Laguna; PP13, PP14 and PP15, the censor's parecer, its division of the Indians into generos, the Chichimeca raids on the road from Mexico to the Zacatecas mines, the friar killed at Chapuluacan, the naming of Luzon, Peru, Chile and the New Kingdom of Granada, the instruction that the first genero be left in peace, and the signature of Fray Francisco de Ortega at San Filipe de Madrid, 14 December 1597; PA1, the opening of libro primero \"de la milicia Indiana\"; PA24, on who paid for an entrada. This volume's SearchWithinVolume layer returned the same six page ids for a nonsense term as for real ones and was therefore ignored; the pages above were reached by walking the click3 page map." }, { "id": "garzoli-2019-schinus-molle-leaf", "title": "Chemical Investigation of a Biologically Active Schinus molle L. Leaf Extract", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6701278/", "publisher": "Stefania Garzoli et al., Journal of Analytical Methods in Chemistry 2019:8391263, Hindawi, 2019; DOI 10.1155/2019/8391263; open access, read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed phytochemical and cytotoxicity study of Schinus molle leaves, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here only for the modern identity and standing of the tree, not for the assay chemistry: that Schinus molle L. belongs to the Anacardiaceae family, is commonly called \"pink pepper\" and \"pepper tree\", is an evergreen ornamental native to South America (the Andean region) and now widespread through the world, and that its leaf essential oils have shown antibacterial and antifungal activity with anticancer and anti-inflammatory properties reported. The paper's own result — a petroleum-ether leaf extract cytotoxic to HL-60 leukaemia cells (EC50 13.3 µg/mL), dominated by the sesquiterpene alcohol elemol — is noted but not leaned on. Reliability 0.8: a solid analytical paper whose ethnobotanical framing is brief and secondary." }, { "id": "pozzobon-2023-liquidambar-styraciflua-fruits", "title": "Chemical Evaluation of Liquidambar styraciflua L. Fruits Extracts and Their Potential as Anticancer Drugs", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9822488/", "publisher": "R. G. Pozzobon et al., Molecules 28(1):360, MDPI, 2023; DOI 10.3390/molecules28010360; open access, read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "Peer-reviewed phytochemical study of Liquidambar styraciflua fruit extracts, read on 2026-08-17. Cited here only for the modern botanical identity and range of the tree, not for the fruit-extract assay: that Liquidambar styraciflua L. belongs to the family Altingiaceae, is commonly called sweetgum, alligator tree and liquidambar, is an aromatic hardwood 20–25 m tall, and is native to the south and south-east of the United States extending into Central America and Mexico, with recorded antitumor, antioxidant, hepatoprotective and antimicrobial activity in earlier work. The paper does not discuss the sixteenth-century Nahuatl record and is not cited for it; the equation of Hernández's xochiocotzotl with this species is modern botanical consensus, carried in this corpus at a confidence that says so. Reliability 0.8." }, { "id": "zamora-coronado-legislacion-ultramarina-tomo-iii-1845", "title": "Biblioteca de legislación ultramarina en forma de diccionario alfabético, tomo 3.º — letras D, E, F, G, H, I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=m-LJ2bewEjwC&pg=PA129", "publisher": "Don José María Zamora y Coronado, ministro togado honorario del suprimido Consejo de Hacienda, cesante del Tribunal Mayor de Cuentas de la Habana; Madrid, Imprenta de J. Martín Alegría, Cuesta de Santo Domingo núm. 8, 1845. Full-view digitisation of the Universidad Complutense copy, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "An alphabetical dictionary of the law in force in the Spanish overseas possessions, compiled by a career officer of that administration. Its own title page, read as a scan at PP11 on 2026-08-17, states what it contains: the text of all the laws of the Indies in force, extracts of those of some use \"aunque solo sea para recuerdo histórico\", the Ordenanzas de Intendentes of 1786 and 1803, the Código de Comercio of 1829, and the royal cédulas, orders and regulations applied to each branch \"desde 1680 hasta el dia\", with accordadas of the Audiencias, bandos and statistical notices added. It is registered secondary rather than primary for a specific reason: for the eighteenth-century cédulas cited here it is a transmission printed some sixty years later by a compiler who served the colonial treasury and who interleaves his own footnotes with the quoted text. Where it quotes, it quotes at length and inside guillemets, and the quotations in the objects citing it are taken only from within those marks. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-17 at zoom=3&w=1800 - PP3 and PP9 (Complutense book label and half-title), PP11 (title page), PA10, PA11 and PA12 (the article DEMENCIA en militares, with the royal orders of 17 June 1791, 16 August 1793, 12 October 1797, 12 July 1800, 31 May 1802 and 28 February 1819), PA128 to PA134 and PA141 (the article ESCLAVOS: ESCLAVITUD, including the cédula of 14 November 1693 to the captain general of Havana, the circular cédula to the Indies of 14 April 1789 on fugitives from foreign colonies, the cédula and instruction of 31 May 1789 on the education, treatment and occupation of slaves, and the compiler's footnote on its suspension in Cuba)." }, { "id": "zamora-coronado-legislacion-ultramarina-tomo-ii-1844", "title": "Biblioteca de legislación ultramarina en forma de diccionario alfabético — the volume of the letters B and C", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GDEqVOtggC&pg=PA211", "publisher": "Don José María Zamora y Coronado; Madrid, Imprenta de J. Martín Alegría, 1844. Full-view digitisation of the Universidad Complutense copy, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "The second tome of the same compilation, cited here for its article CEMENTERIOS. Registered at a reliability below the third tome for one reason that should be stated: the title page is not present in this digitisation. PP1 to PP8 are the binding, the Complutense loan label and blank leaves, and the text begins at PA5 under the heading \"BIBLIOTECA DE LEGISLACION ULTRAMARINA\" and the letter B, which was read as a scan on 2026-08-17. The volume is identified as the tome of letters B and C by that opening page, by the Google Books record (\"B-C\", 1844), and by the chronological index of the compilation itself, which refers the cédula on the construction of cemeteries to \"II, 211\" - the page where the article CEMENTERIOS in fact stands. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-17 - PA3, PA5, PA211 and PA212." }, { "id": "zamora-coronado-indice-cronologico-legislacion-ultramarina", "title": "Índice cronológico of the Biblioteca de legislación ultramarina, the years 1787 to 1792", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=gcY0AQAAMAAJ&pg=RA2-PA17", "publisher": "Don José María Zamora y Coronado; Madrid, Imprenta de J. Martín Alegría, 1846. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-17", "notes": "The chronological index bound at the end of the compilation, which lists each royal cédula, royal order and auto acordado by date with a one-line subject and a tome-and-page reference into the alphabetical volumes. Read as scans on 2026-08-17 at RA2-PA17 and RA2-PA18 (the entries for 1787 to 1792, including \"R. C. Abril 14 [1789], negros fugitivos del estranjero gozen libertad. III, 129\", \"Marzo 27 [1789], construccion de cementerios. II, 211\", \"Junio 17 [1791]; y agosto 16 de 93, demencia de militares. III, 10\" and \"Junio 29 [1791]; y setiembre 22 de 1792, cementerios en Méjico. II, 211\") and at RA2-PA68 (the entries of 1847). Cited only for what it is - a finding aid whose references were checked against the pages themselves, all three of which held what the index said they held." }, { "id": "burr-1897-report-on-maps", "title": "Report on Maps, in Report and Accompanying Papers: Geographical (volume 3 of the Report of the Commission appointed by the President of the United States to investigate and report upon the true divisional line between the Republic of Venezuela and British Guiana)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ACXY4lWdiu0C&pg=PA176", "publisher": "George Lincoln Burr; United States Venezuelan Boundary Commission, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1897; volume metadata read from the Google Books record (publisher G.P.O., 1897, volume 3, digitised from the Oxford University copy)", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Pages 175 to 178 read as page images on 2026-08-18, running head REPORT ON MAPS with the author's name BURR on the verso heads. Cited here for the identification of the great map of South America by the royal geographer Juan de la Cruz Cano y Olmedilla, Madrid 1775, as the earliest published Spanish map to treat the Guayana region with any minuteness of detail; for Burr's express caution that he had not learned what official sanction the map may have had, while holding that its information must have been drawn largely from official sources; for the 1796 official map of Francisco Requena, whose treatment of the region between Orinoco and Essequibo Burr judges to show little information beyond that to be gained from Cruz Cano and Surville; and for the letter of the Dutch envoy Ruysch from Amiens in December 1801 about maps then being engraved in London. Reliability is held at 0.8 rather than higher because the volume is a party document — the commission was appointed by the United States in support of the Venezuelan case against Great Britain — and Burr's report is advocacy-adjacent scholarship even where its bibliographical detail is exact." }, { "id": "mallet-prevost-1897-cartographical-testimony", "title": "Cartographical Testimony of Geographers, in Report and Accompanying Papers: Geographical (volume 3 of the Report of the Commission appointed by the President of the United States to investigate and report upon the true divisional line between the Republic of Venezuela and British Guiana)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ACXY4lWdiu0C&pg=PA78", "publisher": "Severo Mallet-Prevost, secretary of the commission; United States Venezuelan Boundary Commission, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1897", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Pages 78 to 81 read as page images on 2026-08-18, running head CARTOGRAPHICAL TESTIMONY OF GEOGRAPHERS, section heading CRUZ CANO Y OLMEDILLA. Cited here for the course of the boundary Cruz Cano engraved on his 1775 map, from the mouth of the Moruga to the west bank of the Essequibo; for the statement that Cruz Cano left no written works to throw light upon his intentions; for the reading that the line drawn around the Dutch settlements would seem to mark the limits of actual Dutch possession; for the author's judgement that as a Spaniard he looked upon Spain as the original discoverer of Guiana and hence regarded the Dutch as intruders; and for the sentence that from Cruz Cano, who was followed by a host of map makers, the argument passes to another group. Reliability is set at 0.75, below the Burr and Baker sections of the same volume, because this paper is written by the commission's secretary as counsel for a position in a live international dispute and reasons openly about which principle of division should govern." }, { "id": "baker-1897-catalogue-of-maps", "title": "Catalogue of maps of the Guiana region, in Report and Accompanying Papers: Geographical (volume 3 of the Report of the Commission appointed by the President of the United States to investigate and report upon the true divisional line between the Republic of Venezuela and British Guiana)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ACXY4lWdiu0C&pg=PA426", "publisher": "Marcus Baker; United States Venezuelan Boundary Commission, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1897", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Pages 426 and 496 read as page images on 2026-08-18, running head BAKER. A cartobibliography giving, for each map seen, a diplomatic transcription of the title, the sheet size, the colouring, the repository where the copy was seen and a note on the boundary drawn. Cited here for the transcribed title of the Cruz Cano map as reissued in London by William Faden on 1 January 1799 in six sheets, each 24.5 by 26 inches, with Faden's own Nota describing it as a literal and exact copy of a very rare Spanish map composed and engraved at Madrid in 1775 by order of the King of Spain; and for the entries of Henry S. Tanner of Philadelphia and Pierre Tardieu of Paris, whose notes read \"Shows a modified form of the Cruz Cano line\" and \"Shows the Cruz Cano line\", alongside a Tanner sheet in the same 1836 atlas noted as showing the Arrowsmith-Schomburgk line. Reliability 0.85: the descriptive catalogue is checkable, records where each copy was seen, and its factual entries are independent of the commission's argument, though it belongs to the same party document." }, { "id": "humboldt-ensayo-politico-1827-t4", "title": "Ensayo político sobre la Nueva España, tomo cuarto — libro V, capítulo XII, on the roads, the interior commerce and the trade of Veracruz and Acapulco", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=hH22HpNLddkC&pg=PA33", "publisher": "Alexander von Humboldt, Spanish translation; en casa de Jules Renouard, Paris, 1827; volume metadata read from the Google Books record (publisher J. Renouard, 1827, volume 4, digitised from the University of California copy)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Pages 33 to 35 and 43 to 44 read as page images on 2026-08-18, running heads CAPÍTULO XII and LIBRO V. Cited here for the four principal roads of New Spain and the distances of the capital from Veracruz, Acapulco, Oaxaca and Santa Fe; for the name camino de tierra adentro and the camino real de las provincias internas; for the distinction between longitudinal and transversal roads; for the statement that carriages can run from Mexico City to Santa Fe over a space longer than the Alps prolonged from Geneva to the Black Sea, and that four-wheeled coaches run to Guanajuato, Durango, Chihuahua, Valladolid, Guadalajara and Perote; for the admission that because of the state of the roads no wheeled freight service had been established and pack animals were preferred; for the thousands of horses and mules in recuas, the mestizos and Indians who drove them, and the tambos or casas de comunidad built in the middle of the pueblos for travellers; for the transversal roads being the most arduous and most deserving of the government's attention; for the sixty-four million pesos fuertes crossing annually by Veracruz and Acapulco; for the two Veracruz routes and the estimate of 1,416,800 pesos made by the regidores of Córdoba for a new road over the Sierra de Atoyaque; and for the weekly mule trains from Chihuahua and Durango carrying silver bars, hides, tallow, Paso del Norte wine and flour and returning with Puebla and Querétaro woollens, European and Philippine goods, iron, steel and mercury. A first-hand observation of 1803-1804 by a Prussian traveller, read here in a Paris Spanish edition of 1827 and registered as primary for what it reports of the author's own observation; it is not the corpus's copy of the 1822 tomo tercero already registered as humboldt-ensayo-politico-t3-1822, which is a different printing." }, { "id": "recopilacion-indias-boix-1841-t1", "title": "Recopilación de leyes de los reinos de las Indias, mandadas a imprimir y publicar por la Magestad Católica del rey Don Carlos II — Tomo I of the Boix reimpression", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=soBTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA314", "publisher": "Madrid, por Ignacio Boix, editor, 1841. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "The nineteenth-century reimpression of the Recopilación, read as page scans on 2026-08-18. The leaf carrying the printed portada was not reached in this copy — PP3 is a marbled endpaper and PP6 a blank flyleaf with a shelfmark, the trap the 2026-08-11 and 2026-08-17 learnings describe — but the edition identifies itself twice inside the front matter. PP7 prints the decree of the Ministerio de Gracia y Justicia, \"En Palacio á 16 de diciembre de 1840\", signed by the Duque de la Victoria as President of the Regencia provisional del Reino, which authorises \"á Don Ignacio Boix para que pueda reimprimir y espender por su cuenta la Recopilacion de las Leyes de Indias\", orders that the reimpression be made \"bajo la inmediata inspeccion de la Sala de Indias del Tribunal Supremo de Justicia … para que la nueva edicion pueda considerarse como auténtica y oficial\", and directs that the decree itself be placed \"despues de la portada del tomo primero\", which fixes this volume as tomo I. PP9 opens the \"LEY QUE DECLARA LA AUTORIDAD QUE HAN DE TENER LAS LEYES DE ESTA RECOPILACION\" with the promulgating carta of Carlos II. Reliability is set at 0.85 rather than 0.9 because this is a commercial reimpression 160 years after the first edition, whose textual fidelity rests on the Sala de Indias' inspection rather than on the Consejo de Indias' own press; against that, its editorial footnotes are themselves evidence, since they record the later cédulas that altered the laws. Page opened and read: PA314, running head \"Libro II. Título XXXII\", carrying leyes III to X of the título De el Juzgado de bienes de difuntos and the footnotes recording the cédula of 27 October 1765 on soldiers, the cédula of 29 January 1777, the real órden of 20 April 1784 and the órden of 29 August 1798 on military jurisdiction. Also read: PA311, running head \"De los oidores y visitadores\", carrying leyes XVIII to XXV of Libro II título XXXI, including ley XXIV (Felipe II, 1 July 1571) requiring the escribanos of the visita de la tierra to hand the processes and writings over to the escribanos de cámara of the Audiencias, and ley XXV (Felipe II, el Pardo, 25 October 1575) requiring viceroys and presidents to take account, with the royal officials present, from the visitadores and their clerks of the fines imposed and of whose hands the money passed into." }, { "id": "tofino-derrotero-mediterraneo-1787", "title": "Derrotero de las costas de España en el Mediterraneo, y su correspondiente de Africa, para inteligencia y uso de las cartas esféricas", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=IYkyonOU7NYC&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Construidas de órden de S.M. por el brigadier de la Real Armada don Vicente Tofiño de San Miguel; de órden superior, Madrid, en la Imprenta de la viuda de Ibarra, Hijos y Compañía, año MDCCLXXXVII. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "The sailing directions issued with the Atlas Marítimo de España, read as page scans on 2026-08-18. Pages opened and read — PP7, the title page quoted above, which names Tofiño as \"Director de las Compañías de Guardias Marinas, de la Real Academia de la Historia, correspondiente de la de Ciencias de Paris, Sócio Literato de la Sociedad Bascongada, y de mérito de la de los Amigos del Pais de Palma\", and Antonio Valdés, Secretario de Estado y del Despacho Universal de Marina, as the minister who presented the charts to the king; PR1-PR2, the \"DICTAMEN DE LA JUNTA DE GENERALES CELEBRADA DE ORDEN DEL REY á fin de exâminar las Cartas esféricas y su Derrotero\", which describes the instruments and the method and closes on the work's stated purpose; PR5, the opening of the INTRODUCCION; PR7, a page of the introduction's history of geography, with a marginal chronology in years before Christ. PP5 is the verso of the title leaf and shows the title only as show-through; nothing is cited from it. Reliability 0.9 — an official publication of the Ministerio de Marina printed by the Ibarra press, but its prefatory matter is an argument for the merit of a work the same ministry commissioned, which is why the certifying dictamen rather than the author's own introduction carries the claims about accuracy here." }, { "id": "serna-manual-de-ministros-navarro-1953", "title": "Manual de ministros de indios para el conocimiento de sus idolatrías y extirpación de ellas, by Dr Jacinto de la Serna, in Tratado de las supersticiones, idolatrías, hechicerías, ritos y otras costumbres gentílicas de las razas aborígenes de México", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=KRDuOKc4WC0C&pg=PA92", "publisher": "Text prepared, revised and annotated by Francisco del Paso y Troncoso for the Museo Nacional edition (México, Imprenta del Museo Nacional, 1892); reprinted México D.F., Biblioteca de la Librería Navarro (Ediciones Fuente Cultural), 1953. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-18: PA20-21 (Paso y Troncoso's introduction, on the provenance of the manuscripts), PA38-39 (the editors' notes and the half-title), PA40-41 (the facsimile of the 1892 Museo Nacional title page and the biobibliographic note), PA92-93, PA98-99, PA104-105 and PA304-305 (the text of the Manual). Registered as secondary, not primary, for three reasons stated on the sheets themselves. First, the volume is not the 1892 printing its Google Books catalogue record claims: the footnote on page 92 dates this edition \"Pub. en Bteca. de Lib. NAVARRO.—México, D. F., 1953\". Second, the editors state on page 38 that where a disquisition ran long \"hemos hecho algunas supreciones, en los últimos razonamientos\" — the edition abridges its text. Third, Paso y Troncoso states on page 20 that while he left the Spanish text's errors standing, the Nahuatl \"he procurado personalmente subsanarlas, examinándolas con escrupulosidad y haciéndolas inteligibles\", so the Nahuatl words are an editor's restoration and not the manuscript's readings. The seventeenth-century original is not reachable from this container. Cited for the Manual's declared purpose, for the healers' testimony it records, for the conjuros it prints, and for the punishments its own pages describe." }, { "id": "herrera-historia-general-decada-octava-1615", "title": "Historia general de los hechos de los Castellanos en las Islas y Tierra Firme del Mar Oceano, Decada Octaua", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=HSf2eQK1wP0C&pg=PP1", "publisher": "Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas, chronicler major of the Indies; the second set of four Decades, catalogued to 1615. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "The Década Octava itself, read as page scans on 2026-08-18: PP1 (the engraved title page), PP2 (blank), PP3 and PP4 (Herrera's dedication to Don Francisco de Texada y Mendoça). Reliability is set below the tier because the volume is an official history written under a commission from the Council of the Indies and says so on its own dedication page, and because the engraved title carries no imprint line — no place, printer or date is printed on any page opened here, so the year 1615 is the catalogue's and not the sheets'. Cited for the title-page styling of the office, for the royal order to continue the Decades, for the Council's appointment of a Comissario over the History, and for Herrera's account of the junta of cosmographers convened to examine the geographical tables." }, { "id": "latcham-animales-domesticos-america-precolombina", "title": "Los Animales Domésticos de la América Precolombiana", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=V4tYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA181", "publisher": "Ricardo E. Latcham; Impr. Cervantes, Santiago de Chile; issued in a museum publication series (the foot of its first page carries the signature mark 'Museo—1'). Full-view digitisation of the University of Texas copy, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "A monograph on the domestic animals of pre-Columbian America, read as page scans on 2026-08-18. Two cautions belong in the record before it is cited. First, the date: the Google catalogue entry says 1823, which the volume itself refutes — the text describes the author's own collecting in Chile on 6 August 1914, quotes an article from the Barcelona magazine Mundo Avícola, and refers to a proposal accepted at the world poultry congress of The Hague, so the book belongs to the 1920s and no date printed in it was seen. The pages opened (PP1, PP2, PP3, PA1, PA3, PA5, PA176, PA178, PA179, PA180, PA181, PA182) include no title page: PP1 is the binding, PA1 is a head-title with the title and the opening of the introduction, and the author's name is read from the running heads. Second, the reliability figure of 0.6 is set by the book's period voice and method: it is 1920s racial-era anthropology — page 5 explains the scarcity of American domesticates by saying that hunting was easier and that \"los indios no eran tan fastidiosos en cuanto a su comida, como los blancos\" — and its zoology is superseded. It is cited here only for what it reports at first hand from named chroniclers, with page citations of its own, and for its physical description of the domestic ducks of pre-Columbian America. Pages relied on: PA179 and PA180 for the two duck varieties, the fleshy red caruncle at the root of the bill and the hiss like a snake's; PA181 for the range from Mexico to Paraguay and the Río de la Plata, and for the footnote quoting Paz Soldán's Geografía del Perú (tomo I, p. 689) on the \"Pato Real (Anas moscata Sin.)\"; PA182 for its quotations of Gómara on Curiana and of Cabeza de Vaca's Comentarios on Guaraní duck-raising." }, { "id": "van-zonneveld-2012-cherimoya-diversity", "title": "Mapping Genetic Diversity of Cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill.): Application of Spatial Analysis for Conservation and Use of Plant Genetic Resources", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3253804/", "publisher": "Maarten van Zonneveld, Xavier Scheldeman, Pilar Escribano, María A. Viruel, Patrick Van Damme, Williams Garcia, César Tapia, José Romero, Marleni Sigueñas and José I. Hormaza, PLoS ONE 7(1):e29845, 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0029845; read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Peer-reviewed spatial and molecular study of 1,504 cherimoya accessions collected in Bolivia (395 trees), Ecuador (351) and Peru (758), full text read on 2026-08-18. Cited here for the statement that \"Most early chroniclers and scientists proposed the Andean region, and more specifically, the valleys of southern Ecuador and northern Peru, as cherimoya's centre of origin\"; for the alternative hypothesis it names, that the centre of origin is Central America and the Ecuador–Peru area a secondary centre of diversity; for its own finding that \"The highest allelic richness as well as the highest number of locally common alleles are found in the area of southern Ecuador and northern Peru\" and that \"Northern Peru, and more specifically the Cajamarca Department, shows the highest levels of genetic diversity\"; and for its judgement that the movement of germplasm between Mesoamerica, southern Mexico and the Andes \"probably took place in pre-Columbian times\". Reliability below 0.9 because the sampling is confined to three Andean countries, which is the same asymmetry the competing Mesoamerican hypothesis turns on." }, { "id": "li-2024-cherimoya-genome", "title": "The American Cherimoya Genome Reveals Insights into the Intra-Specific Divergence, the Evolution of Magnoliales, and a Putative Gene Cluster for Acetogenin Biosynthesis", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10934984/", "publisher": "Tianwei Li, Jianlong Zheng, Orestis Nousias, Yiwen Yan, Lyndel W. Meinhardt, Ricardo Goenaga, Dapeng Zhang and Yanbin Yin, Plants (Basel) 13(5):636, 2024; DOI 10.3390/plants13050636; read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Peer-reviewed genome assembly of the American cherimoya cultivar 'Booth', compared with the previously published Spanish cultivar 'Fino de Jete'; full text read on 2026-08-18. Cited for its summary of the origin literature — the Andean hypothesis with archaeological evidence from 2500 B.C., against \"more recent studies based on microsatellite markers\" reporting higher allelic diversity in Mesoamerican germplasm and so \"the Mesoamerican origin of cherimoya and a pre-Columbian movement of plant material ... to South America\"; for the statement that cherimoya \"was introduced to continental Spain between the 16th and 18th centuries\" and thence to Italy, Portugal and northern Africa; for \"Spain is the largest cherimoya-producing country, followed by Peru, Chile, Ecuador, and Mexico\"; and for the molecular-clock estimate that the two sequenced cultivars \"diverged from each other about 1.93 Mya\". Reliability 0.8 rather than higher because that last figure rests on two genomes and is used in the paper to argue for \"different origin and domestication\" of the Spanish and American cultivars, a conclusion no other source read here corroborates." }, { "id": "jiang-2021-cairina-moschata-genome", "title": "A chromosome-level genome assembly of Cairina moschata and comparative genomic analyses", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8325232/", "publisher": "Feng Jiang, Yandong Jiang, Wei Wang, Chunhai Xiao, Ruiyi Lin, Tanghui Xie, Wing-Kin Sung, Shaobin Li, Ivan Jakovlić, Jiaxin Chen and Xiaoyong Du, BMC Genomics 22:581, 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12864-021-07897-4; read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Peer-reviewed chromosome-level genome assembly of the Muscovy duck, full text read on 2026-08-18. Cited here for the plain statements that \"Muscovy duck was domesticated in Central or South America\" and was \"spread around the world by European colonists, and eventually introduced to China\"; that its breeding in China \"has a reliable record of more than 250 years\"; that the domestic bird \"has become one of the most economically important poultry species in the world due to its unique taste, high breast meat production and low calories\"; and that eleven Muscovy breeds across Latin America, the Caribbean, Europe, Asia Pacific and Africa are registered in the Domestic Animal Diversity Information System. The paper gives no date and no narrower region for the domestication, and carries no production statistics; the object that cites it says so rather than filling the gap from elsewhere." }, { "id": "li-2024-muscovy-duck-populations", "title": "A comparative analysis reveals the genomic diversity among 8 Muscovy duck populations", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11228869/", "publisher": "Tao Li, Yan Wang, Zhen Zhang, Cheng Ji, Nianzhen Zheng and Yifan Huang, G3: Genes|Genomes|Genetics 14(7):jkae112, 2024; DOI 10.1093/g3journal/jkae112; read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Peer-reviewed population-genomic comparison of 83 Muscovy ducks from eight populations — three Fujian-bred lines, one purebred Crimo line and four further Crimo populations — with 11.24 million high-quality SNPs; full text read on 2026-08-18. Cited for the species being \"indigenous to the tropical climes of Central and South America\" and since \"effectively introduced and cultivated across Africa, Asia, and Europe\"; for the documentary detail that \"According to the Quanzhou Prefecture Gazetteer (1743 edition, in Chinese), Muscovy ducks were introduced to Fujian Province (Fujian, China) via commercial activity between Europe and eastern China\"; and for the return leg, the French Groupe Grimaud commercial breed Crimo being brought to China in 1996. Reliability 0.8: the genomic work is on Chinese commercial and local populations only, so the paper is a strong witness to the Fujian history and a weak one to anything about American populations." }, { "id": "arricivita-cronica-serafica-1792", "title": "Crónica seráfica y apostólica del Colegio de Propaganda Fide de la Santa Cruz de Querétaro en la Nueva España, dedicada al Santísimo Patriarca el Señor San Joseph. Segunda Parte", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=MDdg396LMMsC&pg=PT12", "publisher": "Escrita por el P. Fr. Juan Domingo Arricivita, Predicador Apostólico, ex-Prefecto y Comisario habitual de las Misiones, Escritor Titular del Seminario; en México, por Don Felipe de Zúñiga y Ontiveros, año de 1792. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "The 1792 Mexico sheets, 642 pages, read as page scans on 2026-08-18: title page (PT12), fe de erratas (PT1), the índice of the four books (PT2, PT5, PT6, PT7, PT8), and the text at PA437, PA445, PA446, PA447, PA498, PA499, PA504, PA505, PA506, PA603. Reliability is set at 0.75 and no higher because this is the college's own chronicle written by one of its officers - the title page has him as ex-prefect and habitual commissary of the missions and titular writer of the seminary - and its governing argument is that the disasters it narrates were caused by the secular government rather than by the order; it is a partisan witness for causes and an ordinary one for dates, names, numbers and the documents it transcribes. It is nonetheless a primary source in two distinct ways: it prints long verbatim extracts of the missionaries' 1772 informes to the viceroy and of the royal instructions for the two Colorado river pueblos, and it prints Fr. Francisco Garcés's letter of March 1781 to the college's discretorio. Cited here for the spiritual and temporal method of the college's missions (PA445-PA447), for the 1772 renunciation of missions in the Pimería Baja and of the six missions of Coahuila and Texas (PA437), and for the foundation of the two pueblos on the Colorado and the Quechan rising of 17 July 1781 (PA498-PA506)." }, { "id": "gine-2019-women-cajal-school", "title": "The Women Neuroscientists in the Cajal School", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6646472/", "publisher": "Elena Giné, Carmen Martínez, Carmen Sanz, Cristina Nombela and Fernando de Castro; Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 13:72, 2019; DOI 10.3389/fnana.2019.00072; open access under CC BY; read in PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Open-access archival study of the women who worked inside Santiago Ramón y Cajal's laboratory, read in full on 2026-08-18. It shares two authors (Giné, de Castro) with the 2021 Río-Hortega study already registered in this file, so the two are not independent witnesses and the reliability is set below what an archival study would otherwise carry. The paper is unusually explicit about its own gaps, which is why it is trusted here: it states that no birth or death date, no certified photograph and no trace of Manuela Serra could be found at the Instituto Cajal, the JAE archives or the university archives, and that the illustrators cannot be identified in the School's group photographs. Cited for Cajal's 1922 published list of his School and the two women in it; for Laura Forster's 1911 stay and her paper in the laboratory's own journal; for Manuela Serra's post as preparadora, her salary of 225 pesetas a month and her single-authored 1921 paper on the fibrils of ependymal cells and astrocytes in the frog spinal cord; for María Soledad Ruiz-Capillas (1902-1990) at the Instituto Cajal 1928-1930 under Rodríguez Lafora; for María Luisa Herreros (1917-1985), her 1945 paper with Fernando de Castro and the declaration she had to sign after the Civil War; and for the three signatures on more than half the drawings in Francisco Tello's published work." }, { "id": "sanz-instruccion-musica-guitarra-1674", "title": "Instrvccion de mvsica sobre la gvitarra española; y metodo de svs primeros rvdimentos, hasta tañerla con destreza. Con dos laberintos ingeniosos, variedad de sones, y dances de rasgueado, y punteado, al estilo Español, Italiano, Francès, y Inglès", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=AE0ud0fIgiwC&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Compuesto por el licenciado Gaspar Sanz, aragones, natural de la villa de Calanda, bachiller en teologia por la insigne Vniversidad de Salamanca. Con licencia: en Zaragoça, por los herederos de Diego Dormer. Año 1674. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "The most influential Spanish guitar treatise of the seventeenth century, read as page scans on 2026-08-18: the title page (PP7), the opening of the \"Prologo al deseoso de tañer\" (PA2 verso) and the prologue's second leaf (PA3). Reliability is set below 0.9 for a reason visible on the page relied on: Sanz is a first-hand witness to how the instrument was played, taught and named in his own lifetime, but the historical statements in the same paragraph — that the guitar anciently had only four strings and that Vicente Espinel added the fifth in Madrid — are transmitted opinion, not something he could have observed, and he offers no source for them. Cited for the naming of the instrument abroad, for his refusal of the question of the guitar's origins, for his list and ranking of the foreign authors who had printed on the instrument, for his notice of Juan Carlos Amat's Barcelona book, and for the contents of his own method as its title page states them." }, { "id": "soriano-fuertes-historia-musica-espanola-t1", "title": "Historia de la música española desde la venida de los fenicios hasta el año de 1850, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=xFKnDSr5JXwC&pg=PA206", "publisher": "Mariano Soriano Fuertes; catalogued by Google Books as Barcelona / Madrid, 1855. Full-view digitisation of a bound set, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.6, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "A nineteenth-century national history of Spanish music, read as page scans on 2026-08-18 at pages 206-207, where the author argues that the vihuela and the guitar were never the same instrument. Two cautions are recorded rather than hidden. First, the title page was not reached in this digitisation: the copy is a bound set whose front matter is marbled endpapers, a shelfmark leaf (161.C.2) and an index of authorities, and one click3 walk landed instead on the last page of a later tome (\"FIN\", p. 396). The author's name is confirmed on the sheets themselves as a running head; the year 1855 is the Google Books catalogue record and is not confirmed from the book. Second, the work is a patriotic national history written before modern organology, its argument on this point is partly deduced from dictionary definitions, and its own repetition of the Espinel story is at second hand. Reliability is set accordingly. Cited only for what Soriano Fuertes himself argues and for his quotation of Covarrubias." }, { "id": "pandectas-hispano-megicanas-1840-t2", "title": "Pandectas hispano-megicanas, ó sea Código general comprensivo de las leyes generales, útiles y vivas de las Siete Partidas, Recopilacion novisima, la de Indias, Autos y Providencias conocidas por de Montemayor y Beleña, y Cédulas posteriores hasta el año de 1820. Tomo II", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=qNg2AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA326", "publisher": "Por el Lic. Juan N. Rodríguez de S. Miguel; Mégico, 1840, impreso en la oficina de Mariano Galvan Rivera. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Tomo II of the Mexican compilation of 1840, read as page scans on 2026-08-18. It is tiered secondary although the texts inside it are eighteenth-century and primary in nature, because it is a compilation and not the sheets: its own title page announces a selection made \"con exclusion de las totalmente inútiles, de las repetidas, y de las expresamente derogadas\", so a reader cannot tell from these pages what was cut from a document or why, and nothing on them permits collation against the original. Reliability is nonetheless high for what it is used for here — the wording of provisions the compiler judged still in force in independent Mexico — because the volume prints each item with its issuing authority, place and date. Distinct from pandectas-hispano-mejicanas-1839-t1, which is tomo I and a different digitisation. Pages opened and read: PA1, the half-title; PA3, the title page, giving the compiler, the tomo, the Mégico 1840 imprint of Mariano Galvan Rivera and the sources compiled; PA325, printed page 325, in the public-health run of the code — the restriction of smallpox inoculation to seasons of epidemic and the duty to notify the Junta de Gobierno, the authority to inspect butcheries, granaries, markets and eating-houses for adulterated food, and law VI, the reglamento of 1801 on tinned copper and lead-glazed vessels, with the case of thirteen of one family sickened and two dead from vinegar kept in a new glazed jar; PA326, printed page 326, carrying at N. 2522 the \"Circular para la pronta práctica de la operacion cesarea\" of November 1772 over the name of Antonio Bucareli y Ursúa, with the compiler's footnote referring the reader to his own notes in the Diccionario de legislacion under \"Operacion cesarea\"; PA327, printed page 327, the \"Advertencia\" listing the related provisions of the same code and the opening of the title on exchanges and public banks." }, { "id": "medina-cartilla-nueva-matronas-1750", "title": "Cartilla nueva, util, y necessaria para instruirse las Matronas, que vulgarmente se llaman Comadres, en el oficio de Partear", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=-gLOkcAeFXwC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Doctor Antonio Medina, médico de los Reales Hospitales, de la Real Familia de la Reyna nuestra Señora y examinador del Real Tribunal del Protho-Medicato; en Madrid, en la Oficina de Antonio Sanz, impressor del Rey N.S. y su Real Consejo, año de 1750. Copy of the library of a faculty of medicine, full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "The Madrid 1750 first edition of the manual the Real Tribunal del Protomedicato commissioned for the examination of midwives. Tiered primary because these are the sheets themselves; reliability is set below the tier because the prologue — which carries most of what is quoted here — is the Tribunal's own account of a reform the Tribunal itself had petitioned for, so it is an interested narrator both about the state of midwifery it describes and about the remedy it proposes. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-18, printed numbers read off the running heads. PP5, the title page with the imprint and the statement that the Cartilla was \"MANDADA HACER POR EL REAL TRIBUNAL del Protho-Medicato\". PP7-PP8, the opening of the Prologo. PP14, the Tribunal's observation that \"solo en Castilla se havia por una Real Pragmatica suspendido el examen\". PP15, the recourse to the King and the royal resolution that all women living by the office be examined \"assi en Theorica, como en Practica, por el Protho-Medicato\". PP16, the order that a Cartilla be formed and that those not approved \"queden privadas con graves penas de exercer dicho oficio\", and the statement that the book is published \"En cumplimiento de esta Real resolucion\" in the method of questions and answers. PP17, the decision to confine the book to the easiest matter because it is addressed to women \"que apenas saben leer, y escrivir\". Printed page 1, the Capitulo proemial and the definition of the Arte de Partear. Printed page 37, the doctrine on moles and on which products of conception are \"indignas del Bautismo\". Printed page 47, the rule that the Medico and Cirujano be advised \"sin dilacion\", and the head of Capitulo IV, \"en que se trata del Parto\". Printed page 60, the signs of a \"parto preternatural\" and the instruction to have a \"Cirujano Perito\" called. A search of this volume's text layer for \"Indias\" and for \"Tribunal\" returns nothing; the volume's layer is partial, but nothing in the pages read refers to the Indies." }, { "id": "salinas-de-musica-libri-septem-1577", "title": "De musica libri septem, in quibus eius doctrinae veritas tam quae ad Harmoniam, quàm quae ad Rhythmum pertinet, iuxta sensus ac rationis iudicium ostenditur, & demonstratur", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=CMdCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Francisco de Salinas, abbot of San Pancracio de Rocca Scalegna in the kingdom of Naples and professor of music in the University of Salamanca; Salmanticae, excudebat Mathias Gastius, M.D.LXXVII [1577]. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "The Salamanca 1577 first edition. The only deduction from the tier is that the author is describing his own doctrine and his own experiment and has no corroborating witness in these sheets. Warning about this volume's pids, which cost this run a wrong page before it was caught: the click3 map returns two paginated runs, a `PA1`-`PA135` block and an `RA2-PA130`-`RA2-PA438` block, and the printed page numbers do not follow the pid numbers across the join, so every page here was identified from the running head and is cited by its printed number. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-18. PP5, the title page, with the imprint of Mathias Gastius, the date M.D.LXXVII and the tasa \"Esta tassado en seyscientos maravedis\". PP7, the royal privilege in Castilian, describing Salinas as \"cathedratico de propriedad de la facultad de Musica, en la universidad de Salamanca\" and the work as \"un libro de Musica especulativa\", granting ten years where thirty were asked, under penalty of thirty thousand maravedís, \"Fecho en Sant Lorenço el real, a cinco dias del mes de Octubre, de mil y quinientos y setenta y cinco años. YO EL REY … Antonio de Erasso\". Printed page 154 (pid RA2-PA154), the close of the comparison of the first two temperaments and the rubric of Liber III cap. XXII on the third. Printed page 157 (pid RA2-PA157), the division of the comma into twenty-eight parts and the interval-by-interval comparison of the two temperaments. Printed page 166 (pid RA2-PA166), the account of the organ tuned half tempered and half pure, the exhortation to instrument makers to add two sounds in each of the two middle octaves, the rejection of the diesis as a common measure with the numbers of the thirty-one-fold division, and the rubric of cap. XXVIII on lyres and viols. Volume-level negatives recorded so nobody re-probes: `caecus`, `oculorum`, `cantilena`, `cantilenae`, `Hispani` and `Zarlinus` all return 0 hits in this volume's search layer, while `Salinas` returns 10 and `temperamentum` 9 — the layer is partial, not absent, so a 0 here is not evidence of absence." }, { "id": "ramiro-de-valenzuela-1736-adiciones-politica-indiana", "title": "The additions of Francisco Ramiro de Valenzuela to the Política Indiana, libro II capítulo XXX and libro III capítulo VI — the passages marked with asterisks", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=huEykw_YtzYC&pg=PA219", "publisher": "Juan de Solórzano Pereira, Política Indiana, tercera impresión ilustrada por el Lic. D. Francisco Ramiro de Valenzuela. Madrid, por Matheo Sacristán, 1736. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Registered separately from solorzano-politica-indiana-1736-t1, which is scoped to Solórzano's own text in the same volume, because these are a different author, a different century and a different kind of statement: the 1736 editor's additions, set off on the page by asterisks, are an eighteenth-century summary of what the Recopilación then provided, and binding them to Solórzano's id would lend a seventeenth-century jurist's authority to a Bourbon-era annotator's digest. That digest is also the thing this entry is weakest for: it cites the laws of the Recopilación rather than printing them, so a claim resting on it establishes what the annotator said the law was, not the text of the law, which is why reliability sits at 0.7. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-18 — PA218, the additions to libro II cap. XXX numbers 20 to 26, including the citation attached to the sentence on the ordination of legitimate mestizos and the reception of mestizas as nuns, the note that a Colegio de Niños Mestizos had been founded in Mexico, the permission to live in their towns with their mothers \"porque han de heredar sus casas, y haciendas\", the contrary provisions forbidding them to be escribanos, to live among Indians and to be protectores de indios, and the annotator's own conclusion that the author's opinion will be the surer \"si el Mestizo huviere tenido buena educacion, fuere de buenas costumbres, y se portare como buen Español\"; PA219, the numbered providencias 32 to 47, which run from \"Los Mestizos es la mejor mezcla, que ay en Indias\" through the care of orphaned mestizos, the bearing of arms, the refusal of enlistment (\"aunque esto es duro, è inconsequente de la ley antecedente\" … \"y en Portovelo ay muchos Soldados Mestizos\"), the militia companies of free pardos and morenos \"que sirven muy bien en las Costas, y deben ser atendidos\", the tribute of free mulattoes and free blacks, the order that the Audiencias do them justice if anyone tries to subject them to servitude, and the prohibition of arms with its penalty of a hundred lashes and the nailing of the hand; PA215, the additions to the preceding chapter on the Indians, numbers 38 to 47. The asterisk convention is not perfectly kept everywhere in the volume — the registered entry for Solórzano's own text notes that the editor's matter is not always separated on the page — so claims bound here quote only passages where the asterisks are legible on the scan." }, { "id": "albornoz-carta-al-emperador-cdi-1858", "title": "Carta del contador Rodrigo de Albornoz, al Emperador (Mexico, 15 December 1525), in Colección de documentos para la historia de México, tomo primero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=WJk6nlChEKYC&pg=PA484", "publisher": "Printed by Joaquín García Icazbalceta, Mexico, 1858; full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Registered separately from motolinia-historia-1858 and motolinia-carta-al-emperador-cdi-1858, which are printed in the same digitised volume: this is a third document with a different author and purpose and must not borrow their page warrant. Read as page scans on 2026-08-18 — PA484, the head-title \"CARTA DEL CONTADOR RODRIGO DE ALBORNOZ, AL EMPERADOR\" and the opening \"S. C. C. M.—Con Lope de Samaniego, que de aquí envié trece meses há á dar cuenta y relacion á V. M. de estos sus reinos y señoríos\"; PA493, running head \"DE ALBORNOZ\", on the enslavement of Indians for trivial causes, including the man who became a slave for the right to play a drum at an areito and was afterwards sold \"tres ó cuatro veces en sus tianguez ó mercados que tienen cada dia\", with the writer's own judgement that \"así hasta los músicos se venden, que es una cosa de burla y de mucho daño\"; PA511, the subscription — \"desta su gran ciudad de Temistitlán, á quince dias de Diciembre de quinientos y veinte é cinco años\" and the signature \"RODRIGO DE ALBORNOZ\", followed by the collation notes \"Contuli.— Simancas, 14 de Octubre 1781.—MUÑOZ\" and \"Contuli.—LEMBKE\"; and PR39, the editor's Noticia on the letter, which states that it here \"ve por primera vez la luz pública\" and assesses its author. Reliability is set well below the tier for two reasons the editor supplies himself. The text is a nineteenth-century printing of an eighteenth-century transcript from Simancas, not the despatch; and the writer is a royal accountant deep in the factional politics of Mexico in the 1520s who, Icazbalceta observes, on Indian slavery \"revela los innumerables y horribles abusos que se cometian en esa materia; pero no tiene bastante valor para resolverse á cortarlos de raiz\", opines for perpetual repartimientos and, fearing a rising, advises oppressive measures. He is good evidence of the practices he reports and poor evidence of anything he recommends." }, { "id": "munoz-camargo-historia-de-tlaxcala-chavero-1892", "title": "Historia de Tlaxcala por Diego Muñoz Camargo — publicada y anotada por Alfredo Chavero", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=b7t6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Diego Muñoz Camargo, written in Tlaxcala in the late sixteenth century (the text speaks of events 'en el día de hoy' and refers to Cortés as 'el Marqués' — Cortés received the marquisate of the Valle de Oaxaca in 1529 and died in 1547); first published in full by Alfredo Chavero, Mexico, Oficina Tip. de la Secretaria de Fomento, calle de San Andrés número 15, 1892, as Mexico's homage for the fourth centenary of the Columbian voyage. The Google Books copy opened here is a facsimile reissue of that 1892 edition — the title page carries the imprint 'EDICION FACSIMILE 1966 / Editada por Edmundo Aviña Levy / MÉXICO' beneath Chavero's original 1892 imprint, so the sheets themselves are the Chavero setting reprinted photographically in 1966. Full-view digitisation, Google Books.", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Registered at primary for the sixteenth-century Tlaxcalan author's own text as printed in this edition, at a low primary reliability for two reasons visible on the sheets themselves. First, the transmission is long: no autograph survives, the text descends through manuscript witnesses (Chavero's footnotes on PA84 note variants \"manuscrito de Panes\" against the copy he set), and the 1892 edition is a composite reconstruction from more than one manuscript rather than a critical recension of a single archetype. Second, the copy actually opened is not the 1892 first-full-printing but the Aviña Levy 1966 facsimile of it — the sheets are photographically identical to the 1892 setting and the pagination is preserved, but the object of the primary claim is the printed text, not the physical volume. Chavero's editorial notes and preface in the same volume are a separate source and must not borrow this tier — a new id 'chavero-notas-historia-tlaxcala-1892' will be registered if any claim later needs them. The author is a Tlaxcalan mestizo writing about his own city's role in the conquest and its lineages, which makes him a first- person witness for the alliance's memory and a partisan in it, and the object files that duality on the record rather than laundering it. Pages opened and read as image scans on 2026-08-18 — PP1, the cloth binding stamped 'Digitized by Google'; PA1, the title page 'HISTORIA DE TLAXCALA POR DIEGO MUÑOZ CAMARGO / Publicada y anotada por ALFREDO CHAVERO / … / MÉXICO / OFICINA TIP. DE LA SECRETARIA DE FOMENTO / Calle de San Andrés número 15 / 1892' with the 'EDICION FACSIMILE 1966' block underneath and Google's watermark at the bottom; PA80, printed page 80, the succession of the lords of Ocotelolco down to the last Maxixcatzin whom Cortés met, \"Vino el Marqués¹ en tiempo de este D. Lorenzo … quedaron por Señores hasta la venida de Cortés, que halló en el Gobierno de la cabecera de Ocotelolco á Maxixcatzin Tlanquiztlatohuatzin, por divina providencia, y le fué muy fiel amigo\", with editor's footnote \"1 Hernán Cortés\"; PA84, printed page 80's continuation from the chapter on the four señores, \"Por su fin y muerte sucedió Xicotencatl, persona valerosísima, que por su persona hizo grandes cosas en las guerras que se le ofrecieron en sus tiempos, el cual vivió más de ciento veinte años, y á éste halló Fernando Cortés y le hizo muy grande recibimiento porque entró por sus tierras … Este fué el primer cristiano que recibió el bautismo y se llamó D. Lorenzo Xicotencatl, aunque todos los cuatro Señores de las cuatro cabeceras se bautizaron en un día\", with a footnote noting a manuscript variant \"Más de noventa; manuscrito de Panes.—R.\" Snippet-view content served by SearchWithinVolume for pages not opened as image scans is cited only through SearchWithinVolume as the retrieval method, and the printed page number quoted for each of those hits is the number reported by the search API, not one this run verified against the running head; where an image was opened, the running head was read first (PA1 = title page, PA80 and PA84 show '80' and '84' printed in the head)." }, { "id": "torquemada-monarquia-indiana-madrid-1723-tomo-i", "title": "Los veinte i un libros rituales i Monarchia Indiana, con el origen y guerras de los Indios Ocidentales, de sus Poblaçones, Descubrimiento, Conquista, Conversion y otras cosas maravillosas de la mesma tierra — first tome", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=dwdCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA669", "publisher": "Fray Juan de Torquemada, O.F.M., minister provincial of the province of the Santo Evangelio de Mexico in New Spain; Madrid, 1723 printing", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "The first tome of the 1723 Madrid printing, carrying libros I to V, opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-18. The copy identifies itself as the first tome by the signature line \"Tomo I.\" at the foot of its pages and by the running head \"Libro Quinto\" over the sheets read here; the third tome of the same printing is registered separately in this file as torquemada-monarquia-indiana-madrid-1723-tomo-iii. The reliability figure is the one this corpus already gives Torquemada: he wrote in New Spain within a generation of the events narrated here and names his informants rarely, and where he narrates the pacification of the Chichimecas he is a Franciscan writing the credit of his own order. Pages opened and read 2026-08-18, printed page numbers taken off the running heads: PA533 (libro IV, the march on Mexico, read only to identify the tome), PA668 (the end of the chapter on the Japanese converts, read to fix where chapter XXXV begins), PA669 (libro V, cap. XXXV, the whole account of the Chichimeca pacification, the capitulaciones of the Guachichiles, the captain Caldera, the four hundred married Tlaxcalan households and the settlements at San Luis de Potosi, San Miguel Mezquitic, Colotlan and San Andres), PA670 (the continuation of the same chapter, with the marginal year 1592 against the provision on the civil causes of Indians, and the marginal year 1595 against the last year of Velasco's government) and PT18 (a leaf of the alphabetical indice, read only to see how the volume indexes the Chichimecas; nothing is cited from it). A SearchWithinVolume query answers on this volume — \"Chichimecas\" returns ten pages and \"Tlaxcaltecas\" ten — but the search layer returns no snippet text, so every page here was chosen from the hit list and then read as an image." }, { "id": "granados-tardes-americanas-mexico-1778", "title": "Tardes americanas: gobierno gentil y catolico: breve y particular noticia de toda la historia indiana: sucesos, casos notables, y cosas ignoradas, desde la entrada de la Gran Nacion Tulteca a esta tierra de Anahuac, hasta los presentes tiempos", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=mF06AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA299", "publisher": "Fray Joseph Joaquin Granados y Galvez, O.F.M.; Mexico, en la nueva Imprenta Matritense de D. Felipe de Zuniga y Ontiveros, calle de la Palma, 1778", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "A digitised copy of the 1778 Mexico printing, opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-18. The title page states the form of the book in its own words — \"TRABAJADAS POR UN INDIO, Y UN ESPANOL\" — and its dedication to Jose de Galvez, then Secretario del Despacho universal de las Indias. Registered primary because it is the original imprint read here; the reliability figure is a discount for what the book is, a Franciscan's literary dialogue in which the Indian interlocutor is a character the author writes rather than a witness who speaks, and a book dedicated to the minister who governed the Indies. Pages opened and read 2026-08-18: PP5 (the title page), PP57 (the opening of the \"Introduccion, que sirve de prologo\", where the author meets the Indio on the banks of the Alaja and his companion remarks on the curates who lord it over \"esta especie de gentes\"), PP62 (a further leaf of the prologue, on what the writing of history demands), PA232 (the exchange on riches and the mines), PA299 and PA300 (the dispute over who founded the hospitals of Michoacan, with the Espanol quoting chapter 12 of Moreno's 1766 life of Quiroga at length) and PA508 (a page of the theological dialogue, read to establish that the Indio-Espanol alternation runs through the body of the book). The volume answers SearchWithinVolume — \"Indio\" returns ten pages, \"criollos\" six — but without snippet text; the structural map reports 629 page ids." }, { "id": "saldoni-diccionario-efemerides-musicos-1868", "title": "Diccionario biografico-bibliografico de efemerides de musicos espanoles", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=nL9EAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA152", "publisher": "Baltasar Saldoni y Remendo; Madrid, imprenta a cargo de A. Perez Dubrull, 1868. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "A nineteenth-century Spanish musical dictionary arranged as efemerides, day by day of the calendar, with an alphabetical index of the persons entered. Registered secondary because it is a compilation at three centuries' distance from the sixteenth-century subjects it treats, and because its longer entries consist largely of passages transcribed from periodicals and earlier books rather than from documents Saldoni saw; reliability is set at 0.7 rather than lower because he states his intermediaries by name, page and date, and prints his own failures to verify. Read as page scans on 2026-08-18: RA1-PA152 to RA1-PA156, the entry for 26 March 1566 on the organist Felix Antonio Cabezon, which quotes the Gaceta Musical de Madrid of 15 April 1855 pages 84ff, the passage on the arrival at Genoa from Calvete de Estrella's El felicisimo viaje del principe D. Felipe (Antwerp, 1552) page 18 as credited to Hilarion Eslava, the Latin epitaph of the tomb at San Francisco el Grande with a Spanish translation by Aureliano Fernandez-Guerra y Orbe, an octava on Cabezon from Espinel's Casa de la memoria, and two footnotes in which Saldoni records that the registers of the two oldest parishes of Madrid yielded neither birth nor burial entry for Cabezon and that a request to Berlin on 2 December 1868 for the piece said to be the first string quartet written in Europe was answered that it could not be found. RA1-PA194 was also opened: the alphabetical index, which reads \"Cabezon, D. Felix Antonio: dia 26 ... 152\" and fixes the first page of the entry. The pid prefixes are not a single sequence in this digitisation - the index at printed page 94 carries the pid RA1-PA194 while printed pages 152 and 153 carry RA1-PA152 and RA1-PA153 - so printed page numbers were read off the running heads and are what the claims cite." }, { "id": "soriano-fuertes-historia-musica-espanola-t2", "title": "Historia de la musica espanola desde la venida de los Fenicios hasta el ano de 1850, tomo II", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=Q31FAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA2-PA129", "publisher": "Mariano Soriano Fuertes; Madrid, D. Bernabe Carrafa, 1855. Full-view digitisation of a copy binding several tomos of the work in one volume, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.65, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "Tomo II of Soriano Fuertes's history, scoped separately here because the Google digitisation binds more than one tomo under a single volume id and the reading areas are distinct - tomo II occupies RA2, and the signature line at the foot of printed page 129 reads \"TOMO II\". Registered secondary and at a reliability below its tier because the work is openly a thesis: it argues that Spanish music declined when its masters took up \"combinaciones estravagantes importadas de Flandes\", and the pages on Cabezon are written to serve that argument. Read as page scans on 2026-08-18: printed pages 129 and 130, on Felix Antonio Cabezon - his posts as organist of the royal chapel and clavichordist of the chamber of Philip II, the canons and cangrizantes of his treatise, the two works his sons published at Madrid in 1578, the string-quartet priority claim credited to Hilarion Eslava, the verdict that \"las doctrinas de Cabezon fueron puramente flamencas\", the footnote printing the Latin epitaph of the tomb Philip II paid for at San Francisco el Grande, and the note that his portrait in oils is in the Biblioteca Nacional de Madrid. The same pages continue with Mateo Flecha and the chapel of the Escorial." }, { "id": "sahagun-apendice-libro-xi-tepeyac-1830", "title": "Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España, tomo tercero — the appendix to book XI on the surviving places of sacrifice, pages 320-324, including the passage on Tepeacac, Tonantzin and the church of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=FgsOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA321", "publisher": "Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, written in New Spain and dated by the author's own reference to the pestilence of 1576; first printed in México, Imprenta del ciudadano Alejandro Valdés, 1830, edited by Carlos María de Bustamante. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "A distinct text in the same volume already registered here as sahagun-relacion-del-autor-t3-1830, which is the Relación del autor and not this appendix. Read as page scans on 2026-08-18. PA321 carries the passage in full — the three or four places near the mountains where solemn sacrifices were still made, \"El uno de estos és aquí en México, donde está un montecillo que se llama Tepeacac, y los españoles llaman Tepeaquilla, y ahora se llama Ntrâ. Srâ. de Guadalupe\", the temple \"dedicado á la madre de los dioses que llamaban Tonantzin, quiere decir nuestra madre\", the pilgrims who came \"de mas de veinte leguas de todas éstas comarcas de México\" saying \"vamos á la fiesta de Tonantzin\", and the note that \"agora que está allí edificada la iglesia de Ntrâ. Srâ. de Guadalupe, tambien la llaman Tonantzin, tomada ocasion de los predicádores\". PA322 continues with the author's verdict — \"Parece ésta invencion satánica para paliar la idolatría bajo la equivocacion de éste nombre Tonantzin\", the devotion \"tambien es sospechosa, porque en todas partes hay muchas iglesias de Ntrâ. Srâ., y no van á ellas; y vienen de lejas tierras á ésta Tonantzin, como antiguamente\" — and sets beside it the second case, the temple of Toci near the sierra of Tlaxcala where the church of Santa Ana was built, to which the natives came from more than forty leagues, \"parece estar la idolatría paliada\", with the remark that the pestilence \"en éste año de 1576\" began there. Reliability is set below the tier because the text is read in an 1830 printing made from a copy of a sixteenth-century manuscript by an editor who says in the same volume that he printed this part unwillingly, and because Sahagún is a witness to the cult and to Franciscan alarm at it, not a disinterested observer of it." }, { "id": "bustamante-advertencia-del-editor-1830", "title": "El Editor — Carlos María de Bustamante's note on why he printed Sahagún's passage against the apparition, Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España, tomo tercero, pages 325-326", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=FgsOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA325", "publisher": "Carlos María de Bustamante, editor; México, Imprenta del ciudadano Alejandro Valdés, 1830. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "The editor's own signed note, printed immediately after the appendix, read as page scans on 2026-08-18. PA325 gives the reason for publication — a copy of the manuscript had been sold by D. Felipe María Bauzá to an English bookseller for 135 pounds sterling (given in the text as 700 pesos fuertes) and a London edition was expected, so that suppressing the passage would be detected on collation and taken \"por una superchería mia\"; \"La ley pues de Editor veráz, no me permite hacer semejante omision, muy facil de equivocarse con un fraude\"; he prints the text \"aunque con repugnancia, y despues de haberlo pensado mucho ... sin añadirle ni quitarle en esta parte ni una tilde, ni una coma\". The same page names the dispute: Juan Bautista Muñoz, cronista de Indias, \"que niega la aparicion, fundado en un capítulo de carta á Felipe II. enviada por el virey D. Martin Enriquez\", and grounded further on Sahagún's then unprinted text, which he had taken by royal order from the library of the Franciscans of Tolosa in Guipúzcoa in order to write the Historia del Nuevo Mundo commanded by Charles III; and the reply, the \"Apología de la aparicion de Ntrâ. Srâ. de Guadalupe de México, en respuesta á la disertacion que la impugna\", published in 1820 by Dr. José María Guridi y Alcocer in the office of Alejandro Valdés. PA326 records that the passage had already been printed literally in the memoirs of the Real Academia de la Historia, tomo quinto, Madrid 1817, page 205 — \"Resulta por tanto, que no hé sido yo el primero en dar á luz el trozo que contradice la aparicion\" — and then states the editor's own devotion at length, that it would be a cruelty to take so sweet a consolation from Mexican breasts and that he respects \"no solo las tradiciones constantes, sino hasta las preocupaciones de los pueblos, sobre todo cuando por ellas se siguen positivos bienes\". Reliability is set well below the tier: this is a partisan editorial statement by a man arguing for his own probity, and it is used here only for what he did, what he says his reasons were, and the bibliographical particulars he gives." }, { "id": "hernaez-coleccion-bulas-america-1879-t1", "title": "Coleccion de Bulas, Breves y otros Documentos relativos a la Iglesia de America y Filipinas, dispuesta, anotada e ilustrada por el P. Francisco Javier Hernaez, tomo I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=DbiYHd7vL60C&pg=PA101", "publisher": "P. Francisco Javier Hernaez, S.J.; Bruselas, Imprenta de Alfredo Vromant, 1879. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-18", "notes": "A nineteenth-century compilation, not the original sheets, and tiered accordingly: it prints the Latin text of each document, then a \"Resumen castellano\" and editorial \"Notas\", and the reader cannot collate the Latin against the chancery original from these pages. What the volume does state about its own sources is recorded here because it bears on reliability: the 1537 brief to Cardinal Tavera is referred to \"Bullar. de Propaganda Fide App. tom. 1, p. 26\"; the bull Altitudo to \"Bullario Romano de Propag. Fide, App. 1, pag. 25\" with the note \"Extat etiam apud Torquemada, lib. 16, c. 9\"; the bull Veritas ipsa to \"Extat apud Haroldum Lima Limata, pag. 338\"; the Omnimoda of Adrian VI to \"Bullar. Ord. Praedicator, tom. 4, fol. 407\"; and Paul III's Alias felicis of 1535 to an \"Authenticum Mexici apud Minoritas\", \"Del Archivo de S. Francisco de Lima, Registro 26\" and \"Bular. Dominic. Tom. 7. fol. 138\". Reliability is set below what a documentary collection would otherwise carry because the editorial notes are openly apologetic — they cite Bernal Diaz to argue that the Bishop of Chiapas exaggerated, quote Leon Pinelo blaming \"escritores estranjeros\", and assert that in the name of the Catholic King war was never declared on the Indians — and because on one point checked here the Spanish resumen does not match the Latin it summarises (the degrees of consanguinity in Altitudo). The Latin texts and the editor's opinions are therefore treated as two different kinds of evidence, and the objects citing this source say which is which. Pages opened and read as page scans on 2026-08-18: PA65 (the close of an undated letter the editor assigns to 1535, and the opening of Altitudo divini consilii), PA66 (the operative clauses of Altitudo on baptism, marriage, fasting and feast days), PA67 (its clause on apostates, the datum \"Datis Romae apud Sanctum Petrum, anno Incarnationis Dominicae 1537, Kalendis Junii, Pontificatus Nostri, anno tertio. Blosius B. Motta\", and the Resumen), PA101 (the head of Pastorale officium to the Cardinal of Toledo), PA102 (its datum of 29 May 1537, its Resumen and Notas, and the opening of Veritas ipsa), PA103 (the operative words of Veritas ipsa, its datum \"anno 1537, quarto Nonas Junii\", and the Notas on \"Orci satelites\"), PA382 (the head of the Omnimoda of Adrian VI), PA383 (its grant of omnimoda auctoritas in utroque foro), PA384 (its datum at Zaragoza, 9 May 1522, and the Castilian text), PA391 (Paul III's Alias felicis of 15 February 1535 and its provenance line). A SearchWithinVolume layer on this volume returns page ids without snippets; every page cited here was opened as an image and read." }, { "id": "garcilaso-comentarios-reales-madrid-1723", "title": "Primera parte de los Commentarios reales, que tratan, de el origen de los Incas, reies, que fueron del Peru, de su idolatria, leies, y govierno, en paz, y en guerra: de sus vidas, y conquistas; y de todo lo que fue aquel imperio, y su republica, antes que los Espanoles pasaran a el", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=1gdCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Escritos por el Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, natural del Cozco, y capitan de su Magestad; primera edicion Lisboa 1609. This copy: Madrid, en la Oficina Real, y a costa de Nicolas Rodriguez Franco, impresor de libros, ano CIC ICCCXXIII (1723), the segunda impresion, enmendada. Bayerische Staatsbibliothek copy, shelfmark 2 Am.A.261(1. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-19 through the signed page-image path. Reliability sits well below the tier for two independent reasons, and both are stated in the claims that cite it. First, this is not the 1609 sheets: the title page calls itself \"Segunda impresion, enmendada\" and adds a life of Inti Cusi Titu Iupanqui, so the text was passed through a Madrid editor in 1723, a hundred and fourteen years after the author's death. Second, the author is an interested witness twice over - a mestizo son of an Inca noblewoman and of the conquistador Garcilaso de la Vega whose Cuzco household is at the centre of a good many of the anecdotes, writing in Spain from memory and from correspondents about a country he left in 1560, and he says himself of events after that date \"me escriven del Peru\" and \"dicenme\". Where a claim rests on something he reports at second hand, its confidence says so. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-19 - PP4, the pastedown carrying the Munich shelfmark; PP5, the flyleaf; PP6, blank; PP7, the title page in red and black with the imprint and the year in roman numerals; PP20, the Tabla de los capitulos for libro nono; RA2-PA323, cap. XVI, the author's programme for the chapters on what Peru lacked, the inventory of absent animals and crops, and the origin of American horses in the mares and horses of Andalusia; RA2-PA325, cap. XVII, the exclusion of Indians from farriery and horsemanship, the first cows at Cuzco and the first oxen ploughing about 1550; RA2-PA326, the fall of the cattle price at Cuzco between 1554 and 1590, the hides shipped in the fleet of 1587 as Acosta counted them, and the first camels; RA2-PA327, the prices of donkeys, goats and pigs, Cieza's figures for a sow at 1,600 pesos, and the Quechua word cuchi; RA2-PA329, cap. XXII, the rats that crossed with the Spaniards; RA2-PA332, cap. XXIV, Maria de Escobar and the first wheat at Lima; RA2-PA333, caps. XXV and XXVI, the vine and the first grapes at Cuzco; RA2-PA334, the Joya offered by the crown for the first new fruit of Spain, and wine prices; RA2-PA335, cap. XXVII, Antonio de Ribera and the olive, and cap. XXVIII on the fruits of Spain; RA2-PA336, cap. XXIX, sugar, grafting, the garden vegetables and the weeds that renamed a valley; RA2-PA339, the tail of cap. XXX on flax and silk and the opening of cap. XXXI; RA2-PA340, the rest of cap. XXXI, the vocabulary of the new generations. A SearchWithinVolume query answers on this volume - \"Incas\" returns ten pages, \"Olivo\" six, \"Vid\" six, \"Trigo\" ten - so the pages above were located by search and by the tabla rather than by walking the scan." }, { "id": "ordenanza-quarteles-mexico-1782", "title": "Ordenanza de la division de la Nobilisima Ciudad de Mexico en Quarteles, con la Descripcion de sus limites, el Reglamento para los Alcaldes de Quartel o de Barrio, y el Bando de 7 de diciembre de 1782 (copia numero 9)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=0itnL4OvtDsC&pg=PA26", "publisher": "Martin de Mayorga, viceroy of New Spain, and Baltasar Ladron de Guevara, oidor of the Audiencia; printed verbatim in Eusebio Bentura Belena, Copias a la letra ofrecidas en el primer tomo de la Recopilacion sumaria de todos los autos acordados de la Real Audiencia y Sala del Crimen de esta N. E., Tomo Segundo, Mexico, por D. Felipe de Zuniga y Ontiveros, 1787. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The document is read here as a verbatim copy printed five years after the event by an oidor of the same Audiencia, not from the 1782 sheets; reliability is set below the tier for that reason and because Belena is an insider printing the acts of the court he served. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-19. PA26, the head \"OTRA NUMERO 9\" and the opening of Mayorga's decree, with the failed precedents it recites - the Duque de Linares dividing the city into nine quarteles \"en el ano de trece de este siglo\", the Real Sala proposing six in 1720, and the Real Cedula of 1744 answering the Audiencia's letter of 5 February 1743 about \"los muchos ladrones y facinerosos\" and naming \"Don Joseph Velazquez Lorea, Alcalde Provincial de la Hermandad\". PA27, the close of that cedula, \"Fecha en San Ildefonso a quince de Septiembre de mil setecientos y quarenta y quatro. YO EL REY\", and the 1750 division \"por calles en siete Quarteles\" with comisarios and quadrilleros, which \"tampoco subsistio\". PA28, the royal order of El Pardo, 18 March 1778, signed Joseph de Galvez, on the disorders of the pulquerias, ordering the alcaldes de corte to live in their quarteles, and Mayorga's statement that it \"quedo sin efecto por la muerte\" of Bucareli. PA29, the decree of 22 January 1780 commissioning the oidor Baltasar Ladron de Guevara to form the division and the reglamento, and the oficio of the regent Vicente de Herrera y Rivero urging the city to \"imitar el exemplo de la Corte de Madrid\". PA31, Ladron de Guevara walking the city and its arrabales with \"los Mapas que halle mas exactos\" and the operative sentence \"Queda pues esta Ciudad de Mexico y sus Barrios dividida en ocho Quarteles principales o mayores compuestos de treinta y dos menores\", with the boundaries of the first and second. PA41, the end of the Descripcion, the request that stone markers be set where quarters end in open ground, and the signature \"Mexico y Noviembre 6 de 1782. Baltasar Ladron de Guevara\". PA43, articles III to V of the Reglamento - the office is a carga concejil that cannot be refused under a hundred-peso penalty and banishment, the alcalde must live in his quarter, two-year terms, honorific rank, a blue uniform with a silver frog on a scarlet cuff, a baton as insignia of the Real Justicia, fuero pasivo, and nomination by the judge of the quartel mayor each December. PA46, articles XIV to XVII - contraband seizures handed to the revenue, mutual aid between alcaldes, protection of the tribute collectors together with the acknowledgement that they \"causan algunas extorciones en el modo de recaudar\", and the order to keep a folio book listing every street in the quarter, renew the effaced house numbers and the missing street-name plates, and note the workshops, inns and eating-houses. PA47, article XVIII, the \"Padron exacto de la familia o familias que vivan en cada casa ... sin reserva de sexo ni edad\", the daily lists of guests from the innkeepers; article XIX, the order that Indians living in the centre remove to the parcialidades of San Juan and Santiago, excepting examined masters with a public shop and their apprentices under fifteen, with the same article requiring the alcaldes to prevent \"los perjuicios que suelen causarse a los Indios\" and report to the judge of the Juzgado de Naturales; and article XX on notifying changes of address. PA48, articles XXI to XXIV - servants' discharge papers, the alcalde as \"Padre politico\" of his quarter who is to procure that it have a physician, surgeon, barber, midwife and apothecary, and to be told of the sick poor who cannot be cured at home because \"la infundada preocupacion de la plebe\" holds that men go to hospitals to die; the duty to procure an Escuela and an Amiga \"para la ensenanza de Ninos y Ninas\" and to admonish parents who do not send them; and relief of orphans, poor maidens and widows \"sin obligar para esto a ningun vecino\". PA49, articles XXV to XXIX - promotion of trades and of spinning and weaving by women, the campaign against idleness, the order to send the disabled poor to the Hospicio de Pobres and the able-bodied without a trade to the presidios, the duty to keep the paving and flagging in repair, to see that each neighbour sweeps and waters his frontage and throws no refuse in the street or the drains, and to enforce the bandos on street lighting; and the exclusion of the alcaldes from the price-setting of bread. PA55 to PA58, the bando itself - the decree of 21 November 1782 ordering publication, the declaration that the city \"queda dividida en ocho Quarteles principales o mayores, subdividido cada uno en quatro menores que hacen el numero de treinta y dos\", the reservation of the jurisdiction of the Alcalde Provincial y Juez de la Acordada, the four months given to Indians to remove to their parcialidades, the order to every head of family to declare his household, the appeal open to any neighbour who thinks himself wronged by his alcalde, the commencement \"desde el dia primero del ano proximo de mil setecientos ochenta y tres\", and the date \"Mexico y Diciembre siete de mil setecientos ochenta y dos anos. Martin de Mayorga\"." }, { "id": "bando-limpieza-general-mexico-1769", "title": "Bando del virrey Marques de Croix para la limpieza general de la Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico, 26 de octubre de 1769", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=0itnL4OvtDsC&pg=PA339", "publisher": "Carlos Francisco de Croix, Marques de Croix, viceroy of New Spain; printed verbatim in Eusebio Bentura Belena, Copias a la letra ... Tomo Segundo, Mexico, por D. Felipe de Zuniga y Ontiveros, 1787. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "Read as a verbatim copy printed eighteen years later in Belena's compilation, not from the 1769 broadside; reliability set below the tier for that reason. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-19. PA339, the close of the preamble, which gives the miasmatic reasoning - the refuse thrown to the streets, plazas and acequias clothes the air in \"vapores salinos corrompidos que indisponen y alteran la masa de la sangre, y son causa de que pierdan los cuerpos el equilibrio de los humores en que consiste la buena salud\" - the consultation of \"la Junta de Policia formada de Caballeros Capitulares de su muy Ilustre Ayuntamiento, y a los dos Senores Fiscales de S. M. en esta Real Audiencia\", the reservation of further measures on the Alumbrado, and article 1 forbidding all persons \"sean de la calidad o condicion que fueren\" to throw any filth into the streets, plazas or acequias. PA340, articles 2 to 4 - every house owner to build within two months, under a fifty-peso penalty, a stone or lime refuse pit in a corner of the patio or zaguan, paved and with a door, to be emptied frequently \"por los Galeotes del Presidio de San Carlos y Carros destinados a este fin\"; tenants of accessory dwellings to use the main house's pit between seven and eight in the morning; and every house owner to build within four months, under a hundred-peso penalty, a masonry cesspit with a movable stone lid and a vent shaft carried up to the azotea. PA341, articles 4 to 7 - wells to be sited under the eye of the alarife or fontanero so as not to foul \"los canales que conducen de los aqueductos principales las aguas limpias para beber\"; cesspits not to be cleaned by flushing to the street but by the trade that mixes the contents with manure and carts them to the country; the penalties of article 6, ten pesos for those who can pay and a month in gaol for Spaniards who cannot, fifty public lashes at the pillory, three days' exposure and a month in the Presidio de San Carlos for plebeians, and twenty-five lashes and three days' exposure for plebeian women; and article 7 requiring every neighbour to have his frontage swept and watered by eight in the morning. PA345, article 21 forbidding holes to be dug in the paving for Holy Week stands and for the palo volador except by licence of the Junta de Policia, and the closing programme - pavements one and a half varas wide flagged in recinto stone from the wall of each house, the matriculated empedradores paving the rest to the central drain, house drains carried under the flags and covered with concave stone strips, a lead grating at the mouth of each drain, streets levelled by experts beforehand to fix the fall for rainwater. PA346, the levy - the commissioners to value the cost per vara of flagging and paving, bring the materials to the streets, and exact the amount from the owners of houses \"y en su defecto de los Inquilinos a cuenta de los arrendamientos\" against a simple receipt - and the date, \"Dado en Mexico a veinte y seis de Octubre de mil setecientos sesenta y nueve. El Marques de Croix\"." }, { "id": "real-cedula-empedrados-mexico-1782", "title": "Real Cedula de Madrid, 24 de marzo de 1782, aprobando el Plan de Empedrados y Enlosado de la Ciudad de Mexico y desestimando la pretension de los conventos de eximirse, publicada por el virrey Matias de Galvez", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=0itnL4OvtDsC&pg=PA346", "publisher": "Charles III, published in New Spain by Matias de Galvez, viceroy; printed verbatim in Eusebio Bentura Belena, Copias a la letra ... Tomo Segundo, Mexico, por D. Felipe de Zuniga y Ontiveros, 1787. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "Read as a verbatim copy in Belena's compilation, not from the original cedula. Reliability set below the tier accordingly, and because the narrative inside the cedula is the crown reciting what the viceroy and the fiscal of the Audiencia had reported to it. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-19. PA346, the head \"DON Matias de Galvez, Virey &c.\" publishing the cedula \"fecha en Madrid a 24 de Marzo del ano pasado de 1782\", by which the king approved the Plan de Empedrados y Enlosado \"desatendiendo la pretension de los Conventos de Religiosas y demas Individuos que intentaban eximirse del cumplimiento de los Bandos\", and the opening recital of the viceroy's letters of 26 November 1775 and 27 May 1776, the Junta de Policia's bando of 24 October 1775 and its decree of 25 August of the same year. PA347, the recital that the Junta had set aside four thousand pesos from the treasury to buy materials for the houses whose owners did not pave, to be recovered from them; the naming of the four convents that went to law - Jesus Maria, San Lorenzo, San Joseph de Gracia and Santa Teresa la Antigua; the fiscal's opinion \"sentando que los Bandos obligaban executivamente, y que para su publicacion no se requeria el previo consentimiento ni audiencia en particular de los diversos Cuerpos y Miembros de que se compusiera el Publico\", while leaving those bodies free to petition for revocation in due time; and the list of those who had already paved their frontages - the archbishop, the royal mint and custom house, the Colegio Seminario, the Marquesado del Valle, San Francisco and Santo Domingo. PA348, the fiscal's argument that the utility of the work \"no limita a el piso suave y comodo, ni a evitar los pantanos que se hacian en tiempo de lluvias: ni tampoco se sujeta a el adorno y hermosura ... pero si se estendia a preservar contagios de pestes y epidemias a que son propensos los lugares populosos, y a proporcionar mas duracion a las Fincas\"; that no member of the republic could exempt himself; that a quarter of what had been projected under Croix would suffice; that owners only advanced the money, the tenants reimbursing them \"como se habia practicado en Madrid con los Pozos que se hicieron para su limpieza\"; that the convents' pretext was want of funds; and the fiscal's own concession that the nuns be allowed to do the work gradually so as not to burden their rents." }, { "id": "mariana-tractatus-vii-1609", "title": "Ioannis Marianae e Societate Iesu Tractatus VII — IV. De monetæ mutatione", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=tmXbPUKxRlkC&pg=PA189", "publisher": "Coloniae Agrippinae (Cologne), sumptibus Antonij Hierati, sub Monocerote, 1609. Full-view digitisation, Google Books (volume id tmXbPUKxRlkC); the holding library is not named on the pages opened here, which carry two circular library stamps and a crowned ownership mark that were not legible enough to identify", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The first edition of the seven tracts, read as page scans on 2026-08-19. Title page at PP5 — \"IOANNIS MARIANAE E SOCIETATE IESV TRACTATVS VII. I. De Aduentu B. Jacobi Apostoli in Hispaniam. II. Pro Editione vulgata. III. De Spectaculis. IV. De Monetæ mutatione. V. De Die mortis Christi. VI. De Annis Arabum. VII. De Morte & Immortalitate. Nunc primum in lucem editi. COLONIAE AGRIPPINAE, Sumptibus Antonij Hierati, sub Monocerote, Anno M.DC.IX. Permissu Superiorum, & cum gratia & Priuileg. S. Cæsar. Maiest.\", with two library stamps and a crowned ownership mark. Pages of the fourth tract opened and read: PA189, its own title page \"IOANNIS MARIANAE. DE MONETÆ MVTATIONE. DISPVTATIO?\" with the CAPITVM INDEX of thirteen chapters (I \"Num Rex sit dominus bonorum quæ subditi possident\", II \"An Rex possit tributa subditis imperare non consentientibus\", III \"Num Rex monetam vitiare possit pondere aut bonitate mutatis populo inconsulto\", IV \"Geminus pecuniæ valor\", V \"Commercij fundamenta moneta, pondera, & mensuræ\", VI \"Moneta sæpè est immutata\", VII \"Commoda quæ ex mutatione æreæ monetæ proueniunt\", VIII \"Marauedini multiplices et varij valoris in Castella\", IX \"Incommoda ex hac æreæ Monetæ mutatione\", X \"Maiora incommoda ex ea Monetæ mutatione\", XI \"Num argentea pecunia mutari debeat\", XII \"De pecunia aurea\", XIII \"Principis inopiæ succurrendi num via se aliqua ostendat\"); PA190 to PA194 (the close of chapter II, the consent rule \"Sit ergo fixum nunquam Principi licere subditos nouis oneribus premere, nisi accedat consensus quorum interest\", the law of Alfonso XI at the cortes of Madrid of 1329 petition 68 quoted in its own words, and the treatment of monopolies as taxes with the royal monopolies of playing cards, sublimate and salt named); PA195 (the head of chapter III, the emergency-power concession with its duty of restitution, Frederick II's leather money at Faenza and Leiden's paper money of 1574 after Budelius, and the identification of debasement with a tax); PA196 (the head of chapter IV and the definition of the two values, the case of Jaime I of Aragon, and the finding that the monetary laws of Ferdinand the Catholic and Philip II were passed in the assemblies of the realm); PA197, PA198; PA204 to PA208 (the head of chapter IX with the statement of method \"non ex meo capite & cogitationibus subtilia & theorica ducere argumenta … sed exemplis potiùs pugnare rerum gestarum\", the concession that the argument from neglected tillage is two-edged, the preference for milled coinage as struck at Segovia, the copper price of thirteen maravedís the mark abroad against forty-six now in Castile, and the admission that the copper coinage does not stop the silver coming yearly from the Indies); PA209 to PA213 (the price histories of Alfonso X, Alfonso XI, João I of Portugal and Henry II with the dobla at 300 maravedís and the horse at 60,000 rising to 80,000; the failed price tariff; the claim that prices rise by as much as is subtracted from the coin; and chapter XI on the silver, with the million marks brought yearly from the Indies, the five hundred thousand gold pieces a year the alteration would yield, the eleven-dineros-four-granos standard, the law of Juan II at the cortes of Madrid of 1435 petition 31, and the refusal \"Compages hæc rerum subtilissimarum tot annorum spatio coaluit\"). The volume answers SearchWithinVolume, and the search layer is what located the tract; note that the signed page-image src returned by jscmd=click3 already carries zoom=3, so only &w=1800 may be appended — appending a second zoom parameter returns a valid 200 PNG reading \"image not available\"." }, { "id": "biblia-complutense-novum-testamentum-1514", "title": "Nouum testamentum grece et latine in academia complutensi nouiter impressum (New Testament volume of the Complutensian Polyglot Bible)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=nN1TAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "Alcalá de Henares (Complutum), printed by Arnao Guillén de Brocar at the order and expense of Cardinal Francisco Ximénez de Cisneros, colophon dated 10 January 1514; Staatliche Bibliothek Regensburg copy, full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.95, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The fifth volume of the Complutensian Polyglot, read as page scans on 2026-08-19. The volume has no working OCR search layer, so pages were located by structure with one jscmd=click3 map (560 page ids) and then by walking the running heads. Pages opened and read. PP9, the title page, with the arms of Cisneros, the heading \"Nouum testamentum grece et latine in academia complutensi nouiter impressum\", and below it a two-column contents note that lists, in order, the letter of Eusebius to Carpianus on the concordance of the four gospels, the prologue of Jerome to Damasus, the four gospels in Greek with Jerome's Latin set opposite, two tracts on Paul, the arguments of Theodoret, the Pauline and canonical epistles with the rest of the New Testament \"cum interpretatione latina eiusdem beati hieronymi e regione\", then \"vocabularium grecum continens omnes dictiones totius noui testamenti et insuper sapientie et ecclesiastici grece et latine cum breuissima quadam in initio ad grecas litteras introductione\", and last \"interpretationes omnium totius noui testamenti vocabulorum que tam grecam quam hebraicam et chaldaicam sortita sunt etymologiam ab initio matthei vsque ad finem apocalypsis\". PA-equivalent text pages PP420, PP431, PP435, PP438 and PP439, all Apocalypse, showing the Greek and the Vulgate in facing columns keyed to each other by superscript letters, marginal capitals A to D dividing each page, and marginal scriptural cross-references. PP440, the colophon: \"Ad perpetuam laudem et gloriam dei et domini nostri iesu christi hoc sacrosanctum opus noui testamenti et libri vite grecis latinisque characteribus nouiter impressum atque studiosissime emendatum: felici fine absolutum est in hac preclarissima Complutensi vniuersitate: de mandato et sumptibus Reuerendissimi in christo patris et illustrissimi domini domini fratris Francisci Ximenez de Cisneros ... industria et solertia honorabilis viri Arnaldi guilielmi de Brocario artis impressorie magistri. Anno domini Millesimo quingentesimo decimo quarto. Mensis ianuarij die decimo\", followed by the printer's device. The papal privilege and the prologues were not opened, and nothing here bears on when the work was published as opposed to printed." }, { "id": "biblia-complutense-vetus-testamentum-1517", "title": "Vetus testamentum multiplici lingua nunc primo impressum. Et imprimis Pentateuchus Hebraico Greco atque Chaldaico idiomate (first tome of the Complutensian Polyglot Bible)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=2I9UAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "Alcalá de Henares (Complutum), Arnao Guillén de Brocar for Cardinal Francisco Ximénez de Cisneros; Google's catalogue record gives 1517. Staatliche Bibliothek Regensburg copy, full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The first tome of the Complutensian Polyglot, read as page scans on 2026-08-19; 632 page ids by one jscmd=click3 map, no OCR search layer. In this copy the leaves are bound out of the order a reader would expect and the general title page stands near the end of the digitisation. Pages opened and read. PP628, the general title page, printed in red and black, the arms of Cisneros in red, a Latin quatrain above them beginning \"Haec tibi pentadecas tetragonon respicit illud\", and the title \"Vetus testamentum multiplici lingua nunc primo impressum. Et imprimis Pentateuchus Hebraico Greco atque Chaldaico idiomate. Adiuncta vnicuique sua latina interpretatione\". PP9 and PP10, two six-column pages carrying the end of Deuteronomy, with running heads \"Transla.Grec.lxx. cum interp.latina\", \"Transla.B.Hiero.\" and the Hebrew text, a marginal column of Hebrew roots keyed to the text by superscript letters, and below them, running the width of the page, the Aramaic Targum under the head \"Transla.Chal.\" with its Latin \"Interp.chal.\" beside it and its own marginal column of roots; the Latin columns are padded with rows of o-shaped sorts where a line runs short. PP6, PP5 and PP3, the errata leaves, headed \"Quoniam inter imprimendum quedam perperam impressa esse reprendimus, sic emendentur ut est infrascriptum\", with sections \"Prima pars: translatio lxx\" running Genesis to Deuteronomy, \"Errores translationis latine interlinearis\", \"Errores translationis chaldaice\", and a parallel column in Hebrew type headed \"Errores qui incuria librariorum contigerunt in hoc volumine in hebreo et in chaldeo sic castigadi sunt\". PP7 and PP631, blank leaves. The tome carries no printed date on any leaf opened here; the date in the publisher field is Google's catalogue record, not a reading from the sheets." }, { "id": "nota-manuscrita-sambuco-ximenez-ratisbona", "title": "Manuscript note headed 'De rebus gestis Francisci Ximenii, Iohan. Sambuc. pag 43', bound at the end of the Regensburg copy of the Complutensian Polyglot, tome I", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=2I9UAAAAcAAJ", "publisher": "Manuscript addition in an early hand to the Staatliche Bibliothek Regensburg copy (shelfmark note 'Ser. 99'), transcribing page 43 of Johannes Sambucus on the deeds of Ximénez; digitised with the volume by Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.65, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "Read as a page scan on 2026-08-19 at page id PP630 of the tome I digitisation. It is registered separately from the printed volume because it is a different kind of witness: a hand-written transcription, made by an owner of the copy, of a printed life of Cisneros by Sambucus, which in turn reports what Alfonso de Zamora, professor of Hebrew at Alcalá, said orally. The reliability figure is set low for that reason and the claims that cite it say so. Transcription of what is legible on the leaf. \"Durauit ab hoc anno, qui M.D.II Christi nati fuit, annos continuos plus minus XV de sacris Bibliis edendis cura ... At illud unum, quod ad impensas a Ximenio in ea re absoluenda factas pertinet, reticendum nequaquam est. Septem Hebraea exemplaria, quae nunc Compluti habentur, quatuor millibus aureorum, ex diuersis regionibus sibi comparasse, Alphonsus Zamora, Hebraearum literarum Professor, saepenumero referebat: ut interim de Graecis et Latinis taceam, quorum illa, ab urbe Roma, haec tum ex peregrinis locis, tum ex uariis in Hispania Bibliothecis, et ab octingentis ferme annis, characteribus Gotthicis scripta, magnis sumptibus, Complutum sunt delata. Iam vero Chalcographorum et scribarum salaria, doctorum hominum non vulgaria praemia, mercedes internunciis propositas, quibus ad codices vetustos utebatur, assiduam denique subministrantium cateruam ... si bene quis ratione subducta numeret, quinquaginta millia aureorum, et amplius, summam conficiet.\"" }, { "id": "vives-socorro-de-los-pobres-1781", "title": "Juan Luis Vives, Tratado del socorro de los pobres, translated into Castilian by Juan de Gonzalo Nieto Ivarra (Valencia, Benito Monfort, 1781)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=FYyc3KvpJgcC", "publisher": "En Valencia: en la imprenta de Benito Monfort, impresor del Excelentisimo Señor Arzobispo, 1781; full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The 1781 Valencia printing of the first Castilian translation of Vives's De subuentione pauperum (Bruges, 1526), read as page scans on 2026-08-19. It is a digitised original of the 1781 book, which is why it is tiered primary; as a witness to what Vives wrote in Latin in 1526 it is a translation made two hundred and fifty-five years later, and every claim in this corpus that cites it says so. The volume has a partial OCR search layer. Pages opened and read. PP13, the title page. PA247, the last page of text, with \"FIN\". PA248 and PA249, the index, which gives the chapters of the second book with their page numbers, among them \"Quanto pertenezca y convenga a los Governadores de la Republica cuidar de los Pobres\" at 151, \"Del recogimiento o recoleccion de los Pobres, y de que se les tome el nombre\" at 163, \"De que modo se ha de buscar el alimento para todos estos\" at 169, \"El cuidado de los niños\" at 186, \"Los Censores y censura\" at 189, \"Del dinero que basta para estos gastos\" at 192, and \"De los que estan afligidos de alguna necesidad repentina u oculta\" at 210. PA163, PA164 and PA165, the opening of the chapter on gathering and registering the poor, ending with the doctrine that nothing in the commonwealth is so free as to escape the cognisance of those who govern it. PA169, PA170 and PA171, the chapter on finding food for all of them, with the work requirement, the medical verification of claimed infirmity, and the removal of healthy foreign beggars with a travel allowance. PA176 and PA177, on the officers and servants of hospitals who have made themselves lords on the endowments of the poor. PA186 and PA187, on the schooling of poor children." }, { "id": "von-der-lasa-zur-geschichte-des-schachspiels-1897", "title": "Zur Geschichte und Literatur des Schachspiels — Forschungen von T. von der Lasa", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=WtxtnytVHuQC&pg=PR1", "publisher": "Tassilo von Heydebrand und der Lasa; Leipzig, Veit & Comp., 1897. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The standard nineteenth-century monograph on the history and literature of chess, read as page scans on 2026-08-19. It is registered as secondary rather than primary although the 1897 printing itself was opened here, because everything this corpus takes from it is the author's historical argument about fifteenth- and sixteenth-century books, not a document of the period. Reliability is 0.8, not higher, for two stated reasons: the author is a collector writing about his own collection, and it is a work of 1897 on a question its own author declares unsettled, so its account of where the modern moves were first made is the state of that question in 1897 and not necessarily where later research left it. A duplicate digitisation of the same edition is HRembSIB72YC. Pages opened and read 2026-08-19 - PR1, the title page in full, \"ZUR GESCHICHTE UND LITERATUR DES SCHACHSPIELS. FORSCHUNGEN VON T. VON DER LASA. MIT ZAHLREICHEN FIGUREN. LEIPZIG, VERLAG VON VEIT & COMP. 1897\", with the New York Public Library stamp (PP3, ahead of it, is the library binding, marked ANNEX with \"Heydebrand\" in pencil); PR3, the opening of the Einleitung under a Bacon epigraph, where the author introduces himself as \"Besitzer einer umfassenden Sammlung von Schachwerken\" and lists the earlier histories he is writing against (Twiss 1787, Lewis 1848, Massmann 1839, Forbes 1860, van der Linde 1874); PR5, page V, where he states his method - that he consulted originals in distant libraries or worked from copies and photographs, and quotes long passages from inaccessible books verbatim; PA121, on the medieval problem collections Bonus Socius and Civis Bononiae and the two Italian manuscripts of Florence and Rome dated 1511, which like Lucena carry problems in both the old and the newer manner of play (alla rabiosa); PA164, on the piece names in an Italian manuscript, where the queen is always Donna and the Ferzia has disappeared entirely; PA173, the fullest page, on Lucena's book, its Salamanca imprint, its 150 woodcut problems, its name for the new game (De la Dama), the Italian alla rabiosa, and the dedication that dates it; PA174, on Lucena's treatment of the rules, stakes and en passant capture; PA175, on how little the book was read before 1848 and on the Portuguese manuscript of Antonio das Neves the author inspected at Lisbon in May 1885; PA176, on the Göttingen manuscript, dated by Professor Dziatzko to about 1500, and the author's own admission that he cannot settle whether it or Lucena came first; PA206, the opening of the ninth section, on Ruy López, Alcalá 1561." }, { "id": "pacheco-de-narvaez-compendio-de-la-filosofia-1612", "title": "Compendio de la filosofia y destreza de las armas, de Geronimo de Carrança", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=qhkiSdtD8AoC&pg=PP11", "publisher": "Don Luis Pacheco de Narváez; en Madrid, por Luis Sánchez, año 1612. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "A digitised original of the 1612 Madrid printing, read as page scans on 2026-08-19. Reliability is set below the tier because the author is a partisan - Pacheco de Narváez was Carranza's pupil and the professional champion of his doctrine, and the book is an exposition and defence, not a neutral account of Spanish fencing. Pages opened and read 2026-08-19 - PP11, the title page in full, \"COMPENDIO DE LA FILOSOFIA Y destreza de las armas, de Geronimo de Carrança. POR DON LVIS PACHECO de Naruaez. A DON FRANCISCO DE Rojas y Sandoual, segundo Duque de Cea. CON LICENCIA. En Madrid, por Luis Sanchez, Año 1612\", with the dedicatee's arms; PA35, under the running head \"de verdadera destreza\", the dialogue in which a common fencing master describes what the masters who \"enseñan en secreto estocadas sin reparo\" think of the new doctrine - \"porq[ue] haze alla vnas esgrimas por el ayre, y quiebrãme la cabeça vnos y otros q[ue] es Geometria; y no lo digo porq[ue] lo sepa, q[ue] me ahorcarë\"; PA111, under the running head \"de la [fi]losofia de la destreza\", the passage on the medio de proporción, \"importantissimo para la verdadera aplicacion de las tretas, assi para salir dellas, como para entrar en termino\", the derivation of the species of lines from the curve and the straight (\"como d[e] la linea Curua, sale la Flexuosa, y la Espiral, q[ue] es la que va rodeando a manera de caracol, y la Eliaca, que es la que va ciñendo algun cuerpo, y de la linea recta, salen las lineas Paralelas, y la Perpendicular, y Diagonal, y la Hipotenusa, y la Diametral\"), and the marginal note \"Admirable manera de meter paz experimentada\" against the unarmed method of separating two men already fighting. PP5, PP7 and PP9 were also opened and are binding, endpapers and a 1923 Félix Joubert ex-libris; the title page is at PP11, not at PP1." }, { "id": "castle-schools-and-masters-of-fence-1885", "title": "Schools and Masters of Fence from the Middle Ages to the Eighteenth Century", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ZcK-dktlgHcC&pg=PP133", "publisher": "Egerton Castle; London, George Bell and Sons, 1885. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The standard nineteenth-century English history of fencing, read as page scans on 2026-08-19. Reliability is 0.75, lower than the corpus norm for a scholarly monograph, and the reason is on the face of the pages cited - the author is an open partisan of the Italian and French schools and calls the Spanish system \"pompous nonsense\" and \"this arrogant theory\" on the same pages from which this corpus takes his description of it. He is used here deliberately as a hostile witness: what he concedes about the Spanish school is worth more for being conceded, and what he asserts against it is quoted as his judgement, not adopted as fact. Note also that he contradicts himself between the two passages read, calling Spain \"the supposed birthplace of systematic swordsmanship\" at page 67 while at page 33 rejecting the ascription outright; both are recorded. Pages opened and read 2026-08-19 - PP97, printed page 33, on the fifteenth-century Spanish schools of arms, the Spanish infantry as \"the best trained in the use of arms of all European troops at that period\", the current opinion he disputes, and Carranza as \"the father of the science of arms\" in Spain; PP131, printed page 67, the opening of Chapter IV on the Spanish masters and the \"raison démonstrative\"; PP132, printed page 68, on the printing history of Carranza's book (finished 1569, a few copies by command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, issued 1582 at San Lúcar de Barrameda and Lisbon, second edition 1600), on Quevedo's satire of the scientific espadachín in the Vida del Gran Tacaño, and Fig. 43 illustrating \"ganando los grados al perfil\"; PP133, printed page 69, on Pacheco de Narváez's Libro de las grandezas de la espada, its claim that a reader could learn without a master, its diagrams, the guard it prescribes, and the imagined circle on the ground, \"circonferencia imaginata entre los cuerpos contrarios\", with its diameter and its lineas infinitas." }, { "id": "gonzalez-suarez-historia-ecuador-1894-t5", "title": "Historia general de la República del Ecuador. Tomo quinto", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=5eYtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "Escrita por Federico González Suárez, presbítero. Quito: Imprenta del Clero, Carrera de Chile número 14, 1894. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The fifth tome of the Quito archbishop-historian's general history, covering the eighteenth-century presidencies of the Audiencia of Quito, read as page scans on 2026-08-19. It is registered as secondary and not primary because it is a narrative history written a century after the events, however densely it footnotes its archives. Reliability is set at 0.8 rather than higher for a reason the volume itself supplies: González Suárez cites the Archivo de Indias, the Consejo, and the notarial archive of the Quito Curia by document and date, which is strong; but in the same paragraphs he editorialises freely — he explains the collapse of the Sociedad Patriótica by \"la inconstancia, cualidad característica de nosotros los quiteños\", and he judges the ministers of Charles III \"imbuidos en las opiniones irreligiosas que estaban entonces de moda\". Claims here separate what he reports from what he concludes, and give his conclusions the lower confidence. Pages opened and read 2026-08-19, printed page numbers read off the running heads: PP7, the title page with the Imprenta del Clero imprint and the date 1894; printed 327, the origin of the Hospicio in the distribution of the Jesuit houses under the Conde de Aranda's instruction, the junta de Temporalidades under President Pizarro, Bishop Minayo's swap of the Noviciado for the Colegio máximo, and the foundation deferred to President Villalengua; printed 328, the founders' resolution that the Hospicio be \"el santuario del trabajo\", the obligation on every poor man to practise or learn a trade, the site set aside for \"los enfermos de elefancia\" and the Lazareto founded with five patients, and the unpaid first administrator Joaquín Tinajero; printed 329, the pastoral of 12 April 1785, the subscription, the first collection of more than seven thousand pesos, the name Hospicio de Jesús, María y José, the split of temporal and spiritual government, and the three planned departments; printed 330, the royal approval with its order that the leper department be built outside the town — \"por desgracia, tan atinada disposición no fué obedecida\" — and the footnote listing the assigned revenues and citing the \"Expediente formado sobre el Hospicio y recogimiento de esta ciudad (Quito). Año de 1785 (Archivo de la Notaría eclesiástica en la Curia metropolitana)\"; printed 370, the installation of the Sociedad Patriótica on 30 November 1791 in the great hall of the former Jesuit college and the naming of its officers; printed 371, Espejo as secretary, the bishop as director and Ramón Yépez as censor, and the installation attended by the city's matronas and artisans; printed 372, the bishop's inaugural exhortation, the dissolution within less than two years, the statutes drafted by Espejo and sanctioned 24 February 1792, and the four commissions; printed 373, the twenty-four socios de número, the Saturday juntas, the eight-peso subscription, the exclusion of the friars, the diagnosis of the province's decadence, and the conferences and catechisms that were never carried out. A SearchWithinVolume query on this volume answers for \"Amigos del Pais\", \"indios\", \"franciscanos\", \"escuela\", \"artes\" and \"oficios\" but returns zero for \"Sociedad\", \"Espejo\", \"colegio\" and \"San Andres\", so its search layer is partial and no negative from it is evidence of anything." }, { "id": "mercurio-peruano-1791-t3-ejemplar-104588", "title": "Mercurio peruano de historia, literatura, y noticias públicas que da á luz la Sociedad Academica de Amantes de Lima, y en su nombre D. Jacinto Calero y Moreira. Tomo 3 — second digitised copy, shelf stamp 104.588 B", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=UwVTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Con superior permiso, impreso en Lima: en la Imprenta Real de los Niños Expósitos, 1791. Second full-view digitisation of the same tome, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "A second digitised copy of the same tome already registered here as mercurio-peruano-1791-t3, registered separately for one reason and used for one thing. Its title page, opened at PP5 on 2026-08-19, matches the registered copy exactly — \"TOMO 3, QUE COMPREHENDE LOS MESES DE Septiembre, Octubre, Noviembre y Diciembre de 1791\" — but this copy binds and exposes the leaves carrying the \"Continuación de la lista de señores subscritores al Mercurio Peruano\", which the registered Bodleian copy does not render at any pid tried here, and unlike the registered copy it has a working search layer. Pages opened and read 2026-08-19: PP5, the title page with the Imprenta Real de los Niños Expósitos imprint and the shelf stamp 104.588 B; the subscriber leaf numbered 259, whose first entry is \"La Sociedad Patriótica de la Ciudad de Quito\" and which continues with Francisco Martínez, dean of Bogotá, \"Don Joseph Celestino Mutis, Director de la Real Expedicion Botánica del Nuevo Reyno de Granada\", a commissary of the Inquisition in the bishopric of Cuzco, the director of mining at Potosí and a militia captain; the leaf numbered 256, a verse fable with the December astronomical table showing through from the verso, which fixes that section in December 1791; and the leaves numbered 304 and 305, read here to confirm that they carry the same text as printed pages 304 and 305 of the registered copy. Only the subscriber leaf is cited from this copy; everything else drawn from this tome is cited from mercurio-peruano-1791-t3, where the same pages were opened." }, { "id": "cabrera-maravilla-americana-1756", "title": "Maravilla americana, y conjunto de raras maravillas, observadas con la direccion de las Reglas de el Arte de la Pintura en la prodigiosa Imagen de Nuestra Sra. de Guadalupe de Mexico", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=b6pdAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP13", "publisher": "Por Don Miguel Cabrera, pintor. Con licencia: en Mexico en la Imprenta del Real, y mas Antiguo Colegio de San Ildefonso, año de 1756; full-view digitisation of a copy stamped by the British Museum, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The 1756 sheets themselves, read as page scans on 2026-08-19. Pages opened and read: PP13, the title page transcribed in claim c1, with PP14 carrying the same setting in show-through on its verso; PP29, the section headed \"MOTIVO DE ESTA INSCRIPCION\", where Cabrera states who convened the inspection of 30 April 1751 and why; PA4, the end of the paragraph on the material of the cloth and the opening of paragraph III, \"DE LA FALTA DE APAREJO EN esta Pintura\"; PA13, the definition of the four manners of painting (oleo, temple, aguazo, labrada al temple) and the inference Cabrera draws from finding them combined; PT3, the \"Censura de D. Juan Patricio Morlete Ruiz\" entire and the opening of the \"Dictamen de D. Francisco Antonio Vallejo\"; PT5, the end of Joseph de Alzibar's parecer and the opening of the \"Aprobacion de D. Joseph Bentura Arnaez\". Reliability is set below the tier deliberately: this is a devotional treatise by an interested party, printed as one of the instruments of a campaign the author himself describes on PP29, and it is cited in this corpus as evidence of what the painters did, said and signed, never as evidence about the image. The volume's SearchWithinVolume layer is partial and unreliable — \"pintura\" and \"aparejo\" both return zero results on a book whose title and section headings contain them — so the page ids above were reached by searching other words and by walking the click3 page map." }, { "id": "couto-dialogo-pintura-mexico-1889", "title": "Diálogo sobre la historia de la pintura en México", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=-GRIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA59", "publisher": "Por Don Bernardo Couto. México, Oficina Tip. de la Secretaría de Fomento, Calle de San Andrés núm. 15, 1889; full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "A digitised original of the 1889 printing, opened and read on 2026-08-19: the title page at PA1, and pages 59 and 61 of the text. The work is a dialogue whose speakers are named in the running heads — Couto and Clavé among them — and everything this corpus draws from it is a nineteenth century connoisseur's retrospective judgement on painters dead for a century, not a document of their time, which is why reliability sits well below the tier and the claims citing it sit at 0.8 or below. PA59 carries the dating of Cabrera's series of the life of San Ignacio for the Jesuit casa profesa; PA61 carries the qualified verdict on his drawing, colour and invention." }, { "id": "arenas-vocabulario-manual-calderon", "title": "Vocabulario manual de las lenguas castellana, y mexicana. En que se contienen las palabras, preguntas, y respuestas mas communes, y ordinarias que se suelen offrecer en el trato, y comunicacion entre Españoles, è Indios", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=3TIqR7dRdHkC&pg=PP5", "publisher": "Compuesto por Pedro de Arenas. Impresso con licencia y aprobacion en Mexico, en la Imprenta de los Herederos de la Viuda de Bernardo Calderon; full-view digitisation of a copy from a Roman library, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "Read as page scans on 2026-08-19. Pages opened and read: PP5, the title page, transcribed in claim c1; PP7, the \"Prologo al prudente LECTOR\" entire; PP9 and PP11, the two leaves of the \"TABLA de las cosas contenidas en este Vocabulario\"; PA11, the end of the chapter of questions after an absent person and the head and first entries of the chapter for day labourers in mines and field work. Two cautions carried into the claims rather than smoothed over. First, the title page bears NO year: the imprint ends at \"En la Imprenta de los Herederos de la Viuda de Bernardo Calderon\", and the date 1680 is the digitiser's catalogue attribution, not something the sheets say — this is therefore an undated later Mexico printing of a work first issued in 1611, and the 1611 edition was not opened here. Second, the click3 page map lists a block of PP1xx page ids after the arabic sequence ends at PA139, which is the signature of a second work bound in; nothing in this corpus is drawn from those leaves and none of them was opened." }, { "id": "sayago-diario-del-volcan-de-jorullo-1759", "title": "Diario de observaciones on the birth of the volcano of Jorullo, kept by Manuel Roman Sayago, administrador general of the haciendas of Jorullo, Presentacion and San Pedro, September to November 1759, as transcribed in the article JORULLO (VOLCAN DE) of the Diccionario universal de historia y de geografia, tomo IV", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=LcBa9gWcXpoC&pg=PA453", "publisher": "Mexico, tipografia de Rafael, calle de Cadena num. 13, 1854; the Mexican reissue of the Madrid Diccionario universal, whose Mexican articles are marked with an asterisk. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The text of two dated relaciones written on the spot by the hacienda's administrador general while the eruption was in progress, forwarded through the alcalde mayor of Michoacan to the viceroy, and printed in 1854 from an expediente of 46 fojas then held in the archivo general of Mexico. Registered primary because what is read here is the wording of a 1759 eyewitness document, on the same footing as the other nineteenth- century documentary transcriptions in this registry, and registered at reliability 0.7, well below its tier, for three stated reasons - the manuscript was not opened here, so no reading can be checked against it; the transcription is openly selective, its editor writing \"me propongo copiar todo lo que tenga importancia\" and stating that he omits a letter of the cura de la Guacana contained in the same autos as adding nothing; and the witness is the salaried administrator of the property destroyed, reporting a loss he himself values at 150,000 pesos to the authority that had ordered him to report. Pages opened and read as page scans at 1600 pixels wide on 2026-08-19 - PA453, the opening of the starred article, the 46-foja expediente, the report of 13 October 1759 by the alcalde mayor of Michoacan D. Martin de Reinoso Mendoza y Luyando to the virey marques de las Amarillas \"acompanando el siguiente diario de observaciones\", the ownership of the hacienda by D. Jose Andres de Pimentel, regidor of Patzcuaro, the underground \"retumbos o golpes\" first heard \"en fines de Junio del presente ano de 59\", the flight of the operarios to the hills, the \"voz vaga\" that Jorullo would end on the day of San Miguel whose origin the writer could not trace, the roar of 17 September at nine in the morning that cracked the chapel, and the sending for the Jesuit padre Isidoro Molina from the colegio of Patzcuaro; PA454, the outbreak at three in the morning of 29 September a quarter of a league from the hacienda houses in the canada called Cuitinga after \"tres o cuatro muy recios temblores\", the flames rising \"en globos\", the people at mass in the chapel, the loss put \"segun el administrador y muchos inteligentes a 150.000 pesos\", the hunger and nakedness of \"la pobre gente operaria\", the cattle wandering the hills without a branch to eat, the closing of the old camino real to the copper mines and Acapulco, the ruin of the hacienda de la Presentacion on 2-4 October and the depopulation of the pueblo de indios de la Guacana on 5-6 October with its cura fleeing on foot to the cerro de Cuarallo and the puerto de Tamacuaro carrying the images of his church; PA455, the ash \"trascendido veinte leguas en contorno\", the rain of stones of 8 October found \"muy fofas, y como requemadas o fritas\", the close of the first relacion on 8 October with the promised drawing, Sayago's own heading naming Reinosa's requisition and the order that his account be passed to the viceroy, the three months of subterranean noises preceding the outbreak, and the diary of 9-11 October with stones \"del tamano del cuerpo de un buey\" and ash reaching the hacienda de Santa Efigenia four leagues off; PA456, the near-abandonment of the copper mines of Inguaran five leagues south and the operarios afterwards \"restituyendo ... a solicitud de los mandones\", the second mouth opened on 12 October some six hundred varas from the first, the removal of the image of Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe on 15 October in procession by more than one hundred and fifty people of the labour force, the sands covering the pastures of the cattle hacienda San Pedro and reaching Oropeo and Guadalupe with the beasts left without grazing and the water running \"infecta de materias sulfureas\", and the removal of the cura and Indians of La Guacana with the vessels, ornaments and cofradia property \"como de comunidad\" to Churumuco fifteen leagues south, the pueblo left waste with the roof of its church fallen, its people \"padeciendo de los ojos y sin poder hacer de comer\"; PA457, the chaplain of Nombre de Dios Br. D. Jose de Arriaga driven off on 7 November when he tried to exorcise the volcano and exorcising it instead from a height half a league further off \"con el conjuro de tempestades\", the second inspection of 13 November made because \"manda S. E. se le noticie en particular\" whether bitumen or lava had run, the white sediment \"a modo de cal desleida, tirante a amarillo\", the pound of the most affected sand collected and remitted to the alcalde mayor with a proposed method of separating it, the writer's statement that \"ni yo tengo conocimientos de dicha lava, ni ha habido persona que me diga que materia sea\", the four closing clauses - that it broke out not on a hilltop \"como se ha verificado en los demas volcanes que se ven en este reino\" but in the lowest and flattest part of the canada, the lightning and \"otros tiros de fuego\" thrown from its cloud, the rim of ejected stone whose height \"ya pasa su altura de trescientas varas\", and that \"no han peligrado por Divina Providencia persona ninguna\" - and the signature and date, \"en esta labor de Cuarallo, en trece dias del mes de noviembre de mil setecientos cincuenta y nueve anos.—Manuel Roman Sayago.\"" }, { "id": "orozco-y-berra-articulo-jorullo-1854", "title": "The editorial frame and closing topographical description of the starred article JORULLO (VOLCAN DE), signed M. O. y B., in the Diccionario universal de historia y de geografia, tomo IV, H - LYT", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=LcBa9gWcXpoC&pg=PA458", "publisher": "Mexico, tipografia de Rafael, calle de Cadena num. 13, 1854. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The compiler's own matter around the transcribed diaries, registered separately from them because it is not the 1759 document and not an eyewitness - it is a Mexican encyclopedist of 1854 introducing, editing and then summarising, and the initials at the end of the article are those under which Manuel Orozco y Berra signs elsewhere in the same work. Reliability 0.7, at the tier and no higher, because the geological paragraph it closes with is compiled from printed authorities rather than from a visit, and because the passage immediately before it is an unattributed quotation whose source the article itself names only loosely. Pages read 2026-08-19 - PA453, the statement that the expediente of 46 fojas exists in the archivo general, that the subject is \"curioso bajo todos aspectos e interesante para la ciencia\", and that what has been printed of it before appeared \"en estractos o en malas copias\"; PA455, the editor's note that the promised drawing exists, \"pintado de negro y rojo, con poco tino y sirviendo apenas para formar idea aproximada del objeto\", and that orders were issued to the authorities to supply whatever news they had of the volcano; PA457, the note that the expediente also contains a letter of the cura de la Guacana which the article omits, the judgement that the appearance of Jorullo \"es uno de los fenomenos mas sorprendentes de los verificados en nuestro pais; recuerda el Monte-Novo de Napoles, y llama la atencion de los sabios del mundo\", and the quotation introduced as the baron de Humboldt speaking in his Ensayo politico, beginning \"Los que fueron testigos de esta gran catastrofe, desde las colinas de Agua-Zarca, aseguran que se vieron salir llamas en un espacio de mas de media legua cuadrada\"; PA458, the end of that quotation - the rivers of Cuitimba and San Pedro swallowed in the inflamed fissures, the flames visible from Patzcuaro \"situada sobre una mesa muy ancha y a 1.400 metros sobre las playas del Jorullo\", the lava \"escoriosa y basaltica, que contiene fragmentos de rocas primitivas\", and the great eruptions continuing \"hasta el mes de febrero de 1760\" - followed by the compiler's own closing description: the volcano appearing \"en lo mas bajo de la canada de Cuitinga\", the ground blistering \"formando vejigas hasta de 180 metros de elevacion\", the ashes falling \"hasta cincuenta y siete leguas en linea recta del crater\", the cone standing \"1.578 pies sobre los planes que lo rodean\", the ground called el Mal pais with \"millaradas de pequenos conos de dos a tres metros de altura\" known as hornitos, the position at 19 degrees 9 minutes north and 36 leagues from the ocean, the absence of any new eruption, the sentence that \"el pais es triste y esta desolado, las cenizas llevadas a lo lejos abonaron la tierra y contribuyeron a dar fertilidad a una gran estension de territorio\", the arroyos of Cuitinga and San Pedro reappearing as hot springs whose temperature \"en 1803 su temperatura era de 65 grados 8\", and the closing \"no ha arrojado lava mas de una sola vez.—M. O. Y B.\"" }, { "id": "beristain-articulo-landivar-diccionario-1854", "title": "The starred article LANDIVAR (P. Rafael), signed BERISTAIN, in the Diccionario universal de historia y de geografia, tomo IV, H - LYT", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=LcBa9gWcXpoC&pg=PA620", "publisher": "Mexico, tipografia de Rafael, calle de Cadena num. 13, 1854. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.65, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "A biographical and bibliographical notice of Rafael Landivar, read as page scans on 2026-08-19 at PA620 and PA621. Registered at reliability 0.65, below its tier, because the article is signed BERISTAIN and is therefore a reprint in 1854 of the entry in Jose Mariano Beristain de Souza's Biblioteca Hispano-Americana Septentrional, which was not opened here, so this is a copy of a copy for everything it asserts about a man dead sixty-one years before it was set; and because its one verifiable date disagrees with the other source registered here for the same life. Read at PA620 - the birth at Guatemala \"a 27 de octubre de 1731\", the degree of maestro en artes from the universidad de San Carlos, the Jesuit habit taken in the noviciado de Tepozotlan de Mexico on 7 February 1750, the teaching of rhetoric and philosophy in the colegio of his own country, the offices of prefecto de la congregacion de la Anunciata and rector del seminario de San Borja, the departure for Italy in 1767, the death at Bologna on 27 September 1793 and the burial in the church of Santa Maria Muratelle, the two printed works - the Funebri Declamatio for archbishop Francisco Figueredo y Victoria, Angelopoli 1766, and \"Rusticatio Mexicana\", Bononiae 1782 - the judgement that the Latin poem is \"comparable en la propiedad y hermosura de la lengua de Lacio con el del erudito jesuita Vaniere\", the dedication to the city of Guatemala in seventeen Latin distichs opening \"Salve, cara Parens, dulcis Guatimala, salve\" (the second line of the distich is printed defectively in this setting and is not quoted here), and the contents of the fifteen cantos - the laguna de Mexico, \"el volcan de Jorullo\", the grana, the anil, the mines, the working of gold and silver, the sowing of sugar cane and the making of sugar, the herds, the springs, the birds and the wild beasts; and at PA621 the closing sentence that the poem may be called a compendium of the natural history of New Spain \"en que el poeta tuvo por modelo las Georgicas de Virgilio\", followed by the signature BERISTAIN." }, { "id": "menendez-pelayo-antologia-mexico-1893", "title": "Introduction of Marcelino Menendez y Pelayo to the Antologia de poetas hispano-americanos publicada por la Real Academia Espanola: Mexico y America Central, the pages on the P. Rafael Landivar", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=WiVGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PR167", "publisher": "Madrid, establecimiento tipografico Sucesores de Rivadeneyra, for the Real Academia Espanola, 1893. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The critical introduction to the Real Academia's anthology, read as page scans at 1600 pixels wide on 2026-08-19; the volume is full view and carries a working OCR search layer. Registered secondary at reliability 0.8 - it is careful, it names and dates its own authorities in footnotes, and it states where its knowledge stops; but it is a Spanish critic of 1893 assembling a canon on behalf of the Real Academia Espanola, so its literary judgements are the verdicts of an interested party and are carried here as quotations rather than as findings. Pages read - PR164 and PR165, the placing of Landivar among the writers of Guatemala and the judgement that he is one of the very few elegant versifiers of the Society of Jesus to whom the laurel cannot in fairness be denied; PR166, the writer's account of first reading verses of the poem in a note of Maury's; PR167, \"La Musa del P. Landivar es la de las Georgicas, remozada y transferida a la naturaleza americana\", the statement that the Rusticatio \"esta dividida en quince libros con un apendice\" and is \"una total pintura de la naturaleza y de la vida del campo en la America Septentrional: vasto y riquisimo conjunto de rarezas fisicas y de costumbres insolitas en Europa\", the novelty of the matter forcing the author to \"mil ingeniosos rodeos y artificios de diccion\", \"el sincero y ferviente amor con que el poeta vuelve los ojos a la patria ausente y se consuela con reproducir minuciosamente todos los detalles de aquella Arcadia para el perdida\", and the beginning of the catalogue of contents with the lakes of Mexico, \"el volcan de Xorullo\", the cataracts of Guatemala, the fields of Oaxaca, the working of the grana, the purple and the anil, the beavers, and the mines; PR168, the rest of that catalogue - metallurgy, sugar cane, the raising of cattle and the use of wool, equestrian, gymnastic and hunting exercises, thermal and salutary springs, birds and beasts, popular games and bullfights - the propositio of the poem given in Joaquin Arcadio Pagaza's verse, and the judgement that the author, \"escribiendo en la lengua de los sabios, atino de lleno con el color local americano que tantos otros han buscado sin fortuna\"; PR169, the placing of the Rusticatio \"en el punto intermedio entre la Grandeza mexicana y las Silvas de Bello\", the note that Heredia admired the poem and translated the cockfight episode into Castilian verse, and footnote 1, which cites Beristain and the Backer bibliographers of the Society of Jesus for a birth at Guatemala on \"29 de Octubre de 1731\", the studies at the universidad de San Carlos, the Jesuit habit at Tepotzotlan in 1750, the teaching of rhetoric and philosophy at the colegio of Guatemala \"hasta que envuelto en la suerte comun de la Compania paso a Italia en 1767\", the death at Bologna on 27 September 1793, and the bibliographical statement that \"De la Rusticatio hay dos ediciones, pero solo conocemos la segunda, de Bolonia, 1782, que se titula auctior et emendatior\"; PR170, the continuation of the survey onto other Guatemalan writers." }, { "id": "landivar-lagos-de-mexico-pagaza-1893", "title": "Los lagos de Mexico, libro primero del poema latino intitulado Rusticatio Mexicana, del P. Rafael Landivar, S. I., version parafrastica de D. Joaquin Arcadio Pagaza, with the Latin verses printed as its epigraph", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=WiVGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA289", "publisher": "Antologia de poetas hispano-americanos publicada por la Real Academia Espanola: Mexico y America Central. Madrid, Sucesores de Rivadeneyra, 1893. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The text of the poem as this corpus has actually been able to read it, registered separately from the critical introduction in the same volume because it is a different document with a different weakness. It is secondary and not primary because the 1782 Bologna imprint was not opened - no full-view digitisation of it is reachable from this container, the feed returning only modern editions and studies without page access - so what is read is an 1893 Madrid setting. Reliability 0.7 for a reason the page states in its own headnote: the Spanish is a \"version parafrastica\", a paraphrase and not a translation, so no Spanish line quoted from it may be treated as Landivar's wording. Pages read 2026-08-19 - PA287, the section half-title \"P. RAFAEL LANDIVAR.\"; PA289, the heading naming the piece as the first book of the Rusticatio Mexicana in Pagaza's paraphrastic version, the three Latin hexameters printed as the epigraph, \"Obtegat arcanis alius sua sensa figuris, / Abstrusas quarum nemo penetrare latebras / Ausit, et ingrato mentem torquere labore\", and the opening of the Spanish paraphrase down to \"A mi me agrada, solo, del nativo / Suelo ferace recorrer los prados / Al impulso de vivo / Patrio amor, y los lagos azulados / De Mexico\"; PA290, the continuation of the same book. The line naming the volcano, \"Ya la cumbre negruzca del Jorullo / En donde impera el siculo Vulcano\", was read in the same translator's rendering of the propositio printed at PR168 of this volume." }, { "id": "calendario-guia-forasteros-mexico-1797-razon-anual", "title": "Calendario manual y guía de forasteros en México, para el año de 1797 — the annual Razon of marriages, births and deaths, the hospital return, and the Resumen", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=t2V15LKm6HUC&pg=PA196", "publisher": "Mariano de Zúñiga y Ontiveros; México, en la oficina del autor, 1796. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The statistical section of the same annual already registered here for its Monte de Piedad pages; entered under its own id because different pages are cited and the caveats differ. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-19 — PA196, the \"Razon del numero de los Matrimonios que ha habido, y de las Personas que han nacido, y fallecido en las catorce Parroquias de esta Corte, desde 1 de Diciembre de 1795, hasta fin de Noviembre de 1796\", parish by parish in three columns with a printed total; PA197, the \"Razon de los Enfermos que entraron á curarse el año de 96 y existian en fines del anterior en los Hospitales y Casas que siguen, y asimismo de los que salieron, murieron, y quedaron existentes\", twelve houses in four columns with the column key printed above it; PA198, the \"RESUMEN de los que han fallecido el año de 1796\" and the NOTA reciting the viceroy's decree of 12 January 1791. Reliability sits below the tier because every figure is a return that a parish or a house made of itself for print in a directory, with no audit printed beside it. All seven columns and both grand totals were re-added from their own components before any figure was used here; the one row that does not balance is stated in the object rather than smoothed over." }, { "id": "mendoza-kingdome-of-china-parke-1588", "title": "The Historie of the Great and Mightie Kingdome of China — Robert Parke's 1588 English translation of Juan González de Mendoza, reprinted for the Hakluyt Society", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ykFNAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA130", "publisher": "Juan González de Mendoza, translated by R. Parke (London, 1588); reprinted, edited by Sir George T. Staunton, London: printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1853, volume I. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.75, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The 1588 black-letter English text reset in 1853 with its spelling left as it stood. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-19 — PA130, PA131 and PA132, the opening of the first part, book I, chapter XVI, \"Of the antiquitie and manner of printing bookes, vsed in this Kingdome, long before the vse in our Europe\", including the sentence that European printing \"did beginne in Europe in the yeare 1458\", the claim that books printed five hundred years earlier are still found in China, and the report that \"the frier Herrada and his companions\" brought printed books bought at Ancheo back to the Philippines. Reliability sits below the tier because the text reaches a reader here through three hands — a compiler who never entered China, an Elizabethan translator, and a Victorian compositor — and because the volume's substantive claims about China are second-hand throughout." }, { "id": "staunton-editorial-apparatus-mendoza-1853", "title": "Sir George T. Staunton's introduction and footnotes to the Hakluyt Society reprint of Mendoza's account of China", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=ykFNAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR68", "publisher": "London: printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1853, volume I", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "Nineteenth-century editorial scholarship bound around a sixteenth-century text, registered apart from the text so that nothing taken from the editor is tiered as though it came from 1588. Pages opened and read as scans on 2026-08-19 — PR1, the editor's statement that the translation was made at Hakluyt's own suggestion; PR68 and PR69, Limahon's attack on Manila of 29 November 1574, the governor's return of the Chinese captives, and the choice of Rada and of Gerónimo Marín \"a native of Mexico\"; PR71, the copying of the Lord's Prayer and the Ten Commandments with a Chinese translation set against the Spanish, and the embarkation of 14 September 1575; PR72, Rada's lost Chinese vocabulary, the route his papers took through his brother Juan de Rada to Gerónimo de Ramón, and the statement that his treatise \"formed the basis of the narrative compiled by Mendoza\"; PR73, the death date of 1577, the three ambassadors named by Philip II and the viceroy of Mexico's obstruction; PR81 and PR82, the full 1585 Rome title, the privilege of Sixtus V, the claim of the first Chinese characters printed in Europe, and the list of editions and translations. The footnotes on PA131 and PA132 correcting Mendoza on the date of Chinese printing belong to this entry, not to the 1588 text they sit beneath. Reliability reflects an editor writing in 1853 with the Chinese scholarship of his day and an evident admiration for his subject." }, { "id": "hevia-bolanos-curia-philipica-madrid-1790", "title": "Curia Philipica, primero, y segundo tomo — el segundo distribuido en tres libros, donde se trata de la Mercancia y Contratacion de Tierra y Mar", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=iem-hdid2asC&pg=PP3", "publisher": "Juan de Hevia Bolaños, natural de la ciudad de Oviedo, en el Principado de Asturias; nueva impresion, en que de orden del Supremo Consejo de Castilla, y a costa de la Real Compañia de Impresores y Libreros del Reyno, se han enmendado las erratas y puntualizado las citas equivocadas de las impresiones anteriores, por el licenciado Don Juan Martin de Villanueva. Madrid, año de M.DCC.XC, por Ramon Ruiz, en la Imprenta de Ulloa, con las licencias necesarias. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The standard Spanish handbook of civil, criminal and commercial practice, read as page scans on 2026-08-19. Reliability is set below the tier for two reasons stated on the title page itself: this is a corrected reprint whose editor announces that he has mended the errata and made precise the wrong citations of the earlier impressions, so the readings here are not necessarily the author's; and the work is a practitioner's compendium that states rules on the authority of ordinances and leyes it cites in the margin rather than printing them. The title page asserts no date for any earlier printing and this corpus asserts none. Pages opened and read 2026-08-19: PP3, the title page, with the division of the first tomo into five parts on civil and criminal procedure and of the second into three books \"de la Mercancia y Contratacion de Tierra y Mar\", the author's name and birthplace, the notice of the corrected new impression, and the Madrid 1790 imprint of Ramon Ruiz at the Imprenta de Ulloa; PP5, the \"Indice de todos los paragrafos, y capitulos que se contienen en el Tomo I. y II.\", which places \"Corredores. Tom. 2. lib. 1. fol. 290\" and \"Consulado. Tom. 2. lib. 2. fol. 439\", and so confirms that the volume's printed folio numbers run continuously through both tomos; PA290, the opening of the chapter on Corredores in tomo II libro I (\"Comercio Terrestre\"), with its numbered table of contents and paragraphs 1 to 7 defining the broker as a public officer elected and sworn by the concejo or cabildo, barring foreigners of the kingdom from the office of corredor de cambios or de mercaderias on pain of confiscation and perpetual banishment, and limiting the number appointed; and PA292, paragraphs 17 to 28 of the same chapter, including paragraph 24, \"Tampoco ningun Corredor puede hacer seguros de naves, mercaderías, ni cosas, ni firmarlos por sí, ni por otro. Y ninguna persona puede hacer estos seguros por ningun Corredor, so las penas puestas por una Ordenanza del Consulado Sevillano\", with the marginal authority \"Ord. n. 31\", and paragraphs 21 to 23 barring the broker from buying for himself what he is given to sell and from trading in merchandise of any quality on his own account. The insurance chapters of the maritime book (tomo II libro III) were not opened." }, { "id": "olsen-schaal-1999-cassava-phylogeography", "title": "Evidence on the origin of cassava: Phylogeography of Manihot esculenta", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC21904/", "publisher": "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 96(10):5586-5591 (1999), National Academy of Sciences", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "Kenneth M. Olsen and Barbara A. Schaal, 11 May 1999, DOI 10.1073/pnas.96.10.5586. Read 2026-08-19 for the origin of the domesticate. Phylogeographic study of the nuclear G3pdh locus in 212 individuals, 28 haplotypes among 424 alleles; cultivated cassava and wild populations share haplotypes only along the southern border of the Amazon basin (Mato Grosso, Rondonia, Acre), which is where the paper places domestication, from wild Manihot esculenta subsp. flabellifolia and not from several progenitor species as had been proposed. The paper also states the crop's present weight: a staple root crop for over 500 million people throughout the tropics, the primary source of carbohydrates in sub-Saharan Africa, sixth among crops in world production." }, { "id": "guira-2017-cassava-burkina-faso", "title": "Origins, production, and utilization of cassava in Burkina Faso, a contribution of a neglected crop to household food security", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5448348/", "publisher": "Food Science & Nutrition, Wiley", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "F. Guira, K. Some, D. Kabore, H. Sawadogo-Lingani, Y. Traore and A. Savadogo. Read 2026-08-19 for the crop's route out of the Americas and its present place in Africa. States that cassava is a food plant brought from the New World to tropical Africa, that \"the Portuguese are responsible of the initial diffusion of cassava around the world\" and grew it around their trading ports, forts and castles in West Africa around 1558, and that approximately half of world cassava production now comes from Africa, where it is cultivated in around 40 countries. Burkina Faso itself received the crop only between the second half of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth, by traders from Ghana and by missionaries around 1912. Households there use drying and soaking to eliminate the toxicity. Used here for the African transfer and its attribution, not for anything about Spanish America." }, { "id": "isasti-compendio-historial-guipuzcoa-1850", "title": "Compendio historial de la M. N. y M. L. provincia de Guipuzcoa, por el Doctor Don Lope de Isasti en el año de 1625", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=fQZDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA154", "publisher": "Lope Martinez de Isasti, presbyter of Lezo, composed 1625; first printed 'IMPRESO EN S. SEBASTIAN POR IGNACIO RAMON BAROJA 1850' with the annotations of Rafael de Floranes; full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The 1850 San Sebastian printing itself, read as page scans on 2026-08-19. Reliability is set below the tier for two reasons that the object states in its claims: Isasti writes in Guipuzcoa about a coast he never says he visited, so his account of Terranova is a report of what returning crews told him; and the printing carries the running notes of Rafael de Floranes, a nineteenth-century editor who argues a priority case for the Basques against the French and whose notes must not be read as part of the 1625 text. The scan of the gathering carrying printed pages 164-165 is rotated 180 degrees; the pid-to-printed-page map is offset there, so page numbers below are those printed on the sheets. PP7, the engraved title leaf, with the title, \"POR EL DOCTOR DON LOPE DE ISASTI EN EL AÑO DE 1625\", the imprint \"IMPRESO EN S. SEBASTIAN POR IGNACIO RAMON BAROJA 1850\", and, among the portrait figures framing it, \"JUAN SEBASTIAN D. ELCANO\", \"ESTEVAN DE GARIBAI\" and \"LOPE DE ISASTI\". Printed pages 154, 155 and 156, chapter XII of libro primero, on the Terranova voyages: the cod fleet \"partiendo por el mes de Marzo y Abril, y volviendo por Setiembre y Octubre cargados del pescado bacallao que descargado en el puerto del Pasage se lleva á la villa de San Sebastian, de donde, y de otros puertos de Guipuzcoa se distribuye á todas las partes de España\", with footnote 18, \"600 leguas ponen los pilotos, pero el D. Cedillo, cosmografo del Rey, dijo que no hallaba mas de las 446\"; paragraph 21, \"Van tambien á esta region de Terranova por grasa llamada comunmente aceite de ballena, por hacerse del unto y grosura de las ballenas derretido en calderas\", the ice and the \"montes de nieve\", and the two peoples, \"unos se llaman esquimaos, que son inhumanos, porque suelen dar asalto á los nuestros con sus arcos y flechas (de que son muy diestros) y matar y comerlos. Otros se llaman montañeses ó canaleses, que conversan con los nuestros y dan aviso, cuando sienten que vienen los otros malos\"; paragraph 22, the fishery given up in some years for Norway; paragraph 23 and the top of 155, the harpoons and \"chabalines\", the \"esquifes de cada doce ó quince hombres\", the \"arponera\" and the \"estache\", and the whale that \"parte el esquife por medio y le echa á fondo con toda su jente\"; the yields, \"hay alguna que dá ciento y cuarenta de á diez y seis arrobas\", the meat kept \"en salmuera para comida de los franceses\", the tongue given \"á la cofradia de San Pedro\" at San Sebastian and \"en Guetaria á la fábrica de la iglesia\", the oil sent to \"Navarra y Campos para alumbrarse y labrar paños, y para algunas enfermedades del ganado\" and by sea \"á Flandes, Inglaterra y otras grandes Provincias\", and the claim that \"con estar descubierta la navegacion de Terranova y ser manifiesto el mucho provecho que de ella redunda sobre los de esta Provincia y no otros algunos osan ir allá\", with Floranes' footnote 21 asserting Basque priority \"contra los empeños de un frances, que pretendió disputarla vanamente\"; printed page 156, the barrel at \"veinte ducados\" and the measure of \"cuatro quintales centenares, que son diez y seis arrobas\" enforced \"sopena de veinte mil maravedis segun la ordenanza provincial del cuaderno\", paragraph 24 on the shore whaling of Orio, Zarauz, Guetaria, Zumaya, Deva and Motrico with their \"particulares atalayas\", and the baleen, \"sálenle de la boca de entre las agallas hasta nueve piezas ... ahora valen cuatrocientos reales, y sirven para telas, cabos de cuchillos y otras cosas\", and paragraph 26 on the older Irish fishery that ceased \"ahora cien años\". Printed page 164, chapter XIII, on the Basque language, carrying the contact-language passage: \"y en region tan remota como Terranova han aprendido los salvages montañeses (que digimos arriba) con la comunicacion que tienen con los marineros bascongados, que van cada año por el pescado bacalao, que entre otras cosas preguntándoles en bascuence: nola zaude, como estás: responden graciosamente: Apaizac obeto, los clérigos mejor: sin saber ellos, que cosa es clérigo, sino por haberlo oído. Hablan y tratan con los nuestros, y ayudan á beneficiar el pescado en la ribera á trueque de algun pan bizcocho y sidra que allá no tienen ellos\", preceded by \"Es facil de aprender continuándolo, como la experiencia ha mostrado con los castellanos, que se han avecindado en aquella costa de Guipuzcoa, que hablan bascuence razonablemente\". Printed page 165 was opened and carries the Basque catechisms and a bilingual column of sentences, not the fishery." }, { "id": "bascongada-extractos-juntas-generales-1779", "title": "Extractos de las Juntas Generales celebradas por la Real Sociedad Bascongada de los Amigos del Pais (1779)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=uirmS54orY0C&pg=PA85", "publisher": "Real Sociedad Bascongada de los Amigos del Pais; full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The 1779 volume of the society's printed Extractos, read as page scans on 2026-08-19. Reliability sits below the tier because the pages used here are an advocacy memoir arguing a policy — the admission of the exempt Basque provinces to the American trade — and its figures for the English fishery are given without a source. The title leaf was not opened; the volume's year is the feed record's and the pages read carry no date of their own. Printed pages 85 and 86, from the memoir on habilitating ports in Vizcaya and Guipuzcoa: the body text, \"No son estas las únicas utilidades, que pueden esperar de la providencia del comercio libre de América las provincias esentas. Un comercio inmenso con las colonias, y con el estrangero debe enriquecerlas y poblarlas no menos que lo está hoy la Holanda\", and the prediction that their situation, fueros, \"union y patriotismo\" would \"realizarán antes de veinte y cinco años esta prosperidad, que será una de las columnas principales de la monarquía\"; the two proposed means, \"1o. fomentar vigorosamente las fábricas de lienzos y quinquillería: 2o. esforzarse á comprar el mayor número de embarcaciones que sea posible\"; and, in the long footnote running across both sheets, the fishery argument — the loss of \"un millon de almas, que perdemos de poblacion, y entre ellas el equipage de 60 navíos de línea\", that giving it to the English \"se rompe el equilibrio de las fuerzas navales, quedando las nuestras muy inferiores á las de la gran Bretaña\", that \"Esta potencia ocupa veinte mil marineros en la pesca del bacalao para la provision de España. Estos veinte mil hombres, que influyen en la poblacion como veinte mil telares, dán subsistencia en Inglaterra á mas de un millon de personas\", the trades that million requires — \"labradores, texedores, sastres, zapateros, médicos, cirujanos\" — the observation that when England declared war it \"ha encontrado inmediatamente marinería con que equipar formidables esquadras\", the conclusion \"que es mas importante prohibir los pescados de á fuera, que si la Inglaterra á condicion de admitirlos, nos restituyese las posesiones usurpadas\", and the estimate that with the single contribution established, the main roads built under \"el Excelentisimo Señor Conde de Floridablanca\", and the fishermen relieved \"de la obligacion de matricularse, los pescados de las costas de España se venderan un tercio mas baratos, que el precio á que hoy se dá el bacalao\"." }, { "id": "vandenhurk-prelude-to-industrial-whaling-2023", "title": "The prelude to industrial whaling: identifying the targets of ancient European whaling using zooarchaeology and collagen mass-peptide fingerprinting", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10498027/", "publisher": "Youri van den Hurk and co-authors, Royal Society Open Science, 2023; doi:10.1098/rsos.230741; open access under CC BY 4.0, read through PubMed Central", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "Peer-reviewed zooarchaeological study of whale bone from European Atlantic sites, read on 2026-08-19. Registered as secondary rather than primary because the statement this corpus takes from it about the western North Atlantic is not its own result but its report of another team's ancient-DNA work. What was read and used: that \"The Basques are by far the most renowned early whalers based on written evidence\"; that the oldest documentary record of Spanish whaling is a contract of Santoña (Cantabria) with the monastery of Nájera dated 1190 CE; that specimens from the seven Spanish sites analysed were mostly Balaenidae, identified with North Atlantic right whale, with a single grey whale specimen from Spain; and, reported from McLeod and co-authors' ancient-DNA analysis, that \"the bowhead whale and not the North Atlantic right whale was the main target of Basque whalers in the western North Atlantic as was previously assumed\". The article gives no sample counts, dates or scale figures for western Atlantic Basque operations and does not discuss Red Bay or Labrador, and this entry claims nothing from it about either." }, { "id": "campillo-nuevo-sistema-de-gobierno-economico-1789", "title": "Nuevo sistema de gobierno económico para la América: con los males y daños que le causa el que hoy tiene, de los que participa copiosamente España; y remedios universales para que la primera tenga considerables ventajas, y la segunda mayores intereses", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=-xCURlotL9EC&pg=PA1", "publisher": "Attributed on the title page to Joseph del Campillo y Cosio; 'CON LICENCIA EN MADRID: EN LA IMPRENTA DE BENITO CANO. MDCCLXXXIX'; full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The Madrid 1789 imprint itself, read as page scans on 2026-08-19. Reliability sits below the tier because the printed book raises a doubt about its own authorship in its editor's prologue, which this entry reproduces rather than resolves. Pages opened and read 2026-08-19. PA1, the title page, transcribed in full above, ending \"CON LICENCIA EN MADRID: EN LA IMPRENTA DE BENITO CANO. MDCCLXXXIX.\"; PA2 is its blank verso and PP3 a blank leaf. PA3, the opening of the \"PRÓLOGO DEL EDITOR\", which states the difficulty itself: \"Podria tal vez dudar alguno si el nuevo Sistema de Gobierno Económico para la América es obra del Señor Don Joseph Campillo; pues consta por ella que se empezó á escribir en 8 de Febrero de 1743; que el primer tomo se acabó en 14 de Julio siguiente; y que el segundo es posterior á este tiempo, cuyas fechas no son compatibles con la de su muerte, ocurrida repentinamente en el Juéves Santo del mismo año de 1743\", and begins the editor's answer, \"que ó las fechas del manuscrito que he tenido presente estan equivocadas, ó ...\"; PA4 was opened and continues it. RA1-PA14 and RA1-PA16 were opened as neighbours. RA1-PA15, paragraph 29 of the first part, the diagnosis and the programme: \"Pero despues no se guardó en esto el prudente medio que correspondia, y se llevó adelante el rigor, hasta aniquilar á los infelices Indios\", and the maxims that should have replaced it — \"por medio de un buen Gobierno Económico, reducir á los Indios á vida civil, tratarlos con benignidad y con dulzura; animarlos á la industria, y por este camino hacer de ellos vasallos útiles y Españoles, y no mirar con desprecio la calidad de Indios, ni oprimirlos, como se ha hecho y hace hoy.\" RA1-PA84 and RA1-PA85, the comparison of a country where the cultivator holds nothing — \"los infelices naturales trabajan como esclavos ... y estos como no tienen propiedad en nada, ni esperanza de mudar de Estado, tampoco les asiste aquella heroyca ambicion de adelantar para sí y sus sucesores\" — with one where the vassal is free. RA1-PA86, paragraph 8, \"quanto importa el que las tierras se den en propiedad á nuestros Indios, y que por consiguiente se les dexe la plena y pacífica posesion de todo el fruto de su trabajo\", and paragraph 9, \"Me hago cargo de que por la ley tienen nuestros Indios uno y otro. Esto es, en propiedad algunas tierras, y en pacífica posesion los frutos de su trabajo. Que son libres y que nadie puede privarlos de sus haciendas ni de su libertad. ¿Pero de que sirve esto si la práctica es contra la ley? Esta se lo permite todo, mas ...\" RA1-PA87, the conclusion of that paragraph, \"el hecho es que comunmente aunque tengan propiedad, no tienen seguridad de nada para sí ni para sus descendientes, ni fomento para cosa alguna; y hemos de considerar que una posesion precaria no es posesion que alienta al hombre á trabajar como la que es segura\", and the head of the next section, \"Reparos que se pondrán á las razones que se acaban de explicar, y concluyente satisfaccion á todo\", with the objection stated in its own words: \"¿que de qué puede servir el dárselas á unos hombres que son como brutos, sin discurso, sin ambicion insensibles é incapaces para todo?\" RA1-PA89, the answer: that to deny them the quality of rational beings is \"ageno de la verdad, y propio ó de la misma ignorancia ó de la malicia\", and paragraph 14, \"Si miramos como debemos lo que eran los Indios ántes de conocer á los Europeos, es preciso confesar tenian notorias luces de talento y discurso. Manifiesta esto claramente las grandes poblaciones y ciudades que formáron, los prodigiosos y excelentes edificios que construyéron, los Imperios tan poderosos que fundáron, su modo arreglado de vivir baxo de ciertas leyes civiles y militares, teniendo su género de culto de divinidad; y aun ahora vemos, que todas las artes y oficios los exercitan á imitacion de los mas hábiles Europeos, con gran destreza hasta la pintura, música, &c.\" RA1-PA90 and RA1-PA91 were opened and continue it. RA1-PA92, paragraph 19, the argument turned the other way — \"en el supuesto de que los Indios tengan las potencias tan limitadas como se dice, ó aun mucho mas, me parece que ésta es la circunstancia mas feliz que puede haber para los fines políticos del gobierno; pues de este modo se podrá con toda facilidad hacer de ellos aquello que se quiera\" — and paragraph 20, \"Es, pues, de justicia y muy conforme á una buena política dar las tierras á los Indios en propiedad. Que sea de justicia no necesita de prueba, porque la política pide que se utilicen.\" RA1-PA113 and RA1-PA115 were opened as neighbours. RA1-PA114, the section headed \"PUNTO UNICO. Pruébase que de justicia deben permitirse ciertas Fábricas en América, y distinto gobierno de los extrangeros en sus Colonias, que el nuestro en aquella\", with paragraph 4, \"Estas Naciones tienen pocos Indios por vasallos. Los Ingleses ninguno, y tienen muchas Fábricas en sus paises, y nosotros tenemos pocas, y muchos Indios\", and paragraph 5, \"El consumo de nuestros Indios se aumentará tanto por las nuevas providencias que produce este nuevo sistema, que no será posible pueda surtir España en muchos años la mitad de su abasto.\" The table of contents at printed page 26, naming chapter VII \"Distribucion de las tierras de la América en propiedad á los naturales para su cultivo\", was seen only in the volume's search layer and its sheet was not opened." }, { "id": "lopez-de-arenas-carpinteria-1727", "title": "Breve compendio de la carpinteria de lo blanco, y tratado de alarifes, con la conclusion de la regla de Nicolas Tartaglia, y otras cosas tocantes a la geometria, y puntas del compas", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=yB9Z-OUogdUC&pg=PP9", "publisher": "Diego Lopez de Arenas; Seville: por Manuel de la Puerta, Impressor de la Universidad, a costa de Manuel Angel Xuarez, 1727 (the reprint the licences of 29 and 30 July 1727 authorise; the title page calls it 'esta ultima impression')", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.9, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The Andalusian master carpenter's manual of the carpinteria de lo blanco — the geometry of the timber roof. Page scans opened and read 2026-08-19: PP8 the author's portrait, with the motto \"VIRTVTE DVCE COMITE FORTVNA\", a pair of dividers, a plumb level and a roof cartabon set around it; PP9 the title page, \"por Diego Lopez de Arenas, Maestro del dicho oficio, y Alcalde Alarife en el; natural de la Villa de Marchena, y vecino de la Ciudad de Sevilla\", with the added Suplemento of two treatises, one continuing the sundials and one \"una Practica facil de las Visitas, y Aprecios\"; PP11 the dedication to San Joseph, asking that the work be offered \"al Divino Architecto de Cielos, y tierra\" and serve \"para ensenanza de los que viven debaxo de vuestro patrocinio\"; PP12 the two licences for the reimpression, Seville 29 and 30 July 1727; PP13 the commendatory decimas, including one by \"Juan Bautista, Maestro Carpintero\" praising \"esquadras, y cartabones, relox, calibre, y nibeles\"; PP14 the prologue, with the author's motive — that as Examinador and Alcalde Alarife he had found the rules of measurement \"no esta tan conocida, y apurada, como es necessario\", nor the masters \"tan conformes entre si para el executarla\", \"de que se originan pleitos, que siempre hai en todos los Tribunales en materia de casas\" — and his aim that apprentices and journeymen reach mastery \"con menor trabajo, q otros\", the terms of geometry being set out so as not to obstruct them; PA2 the cartabon de cinco and the armadura de par y hilera with its diagrams; PA3 chapter II and the statement that the three lines of every cartabon are \"geometricamente\" Cathecus, basis and hypotenusa, and that the author keeps the shop's word \"por no innovar, ni mudar de estilo\"; PA43 chapter XVIII, \"como haras los racimos de mocarabes, y amedinados\", with almizate and albernica; PA103 chapter XXVIII, the line of a \"figura tripla\" for cubic bodies constructed with the compass and applied to the diameter of an artillery ball, carrying the marginal maxim \"El compas absuelve, lo que la pluma no puede\"; PA125 the \"Tabla de las Ciudades, Villas, y Lugares de Espana, Islas de Canaria, y Cabo Verde, Islas, y Lugares de las Indias Occidentales, por su abecedario\", whose third column lists La Habana, Matanzas, Cuba, La Veracruz, Mexico, Guaxaca, Goatemala, Nicaragua, Santo Domingo, Puerto-Rico, San German, Xamaica, Cubagua, La Margarita and others with their degrees of pole altitude; PA126 the author's reason for printing it, \"porque en la Carrera de las Indias en Flotas, y Armadas hai muchos curiosos Artilleros, Carpinteros, y Albaniles ... les quise servir en esto\", and his request that readers point out his faults; RA1-PP1 and RA1-PP2 the Tabla of all thirty-two chapters, from the eighteen cartabones of chapter VI to the pole altitudes of chapter XXXII. PP5, PP7 and PP10 are blank or show-through leaves." }, { "id": "arfe-varia-commensuracion-1795", "title": "Varia commensuracion para la escultura y arquitectura — septima impresion", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=cfx-6qgOw1cC&pg=PR3", "publisher": "Juan de Arfe y Villafane; Madrid: por don Placido Barco Lopez, 1795 (the seventh impression, printed from the author's own plates)", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The silversmith's manual of geometry, proportion and design, in the 1795 Madrid reprint. Page scans opened and read 2026-08-19: PR3 and PR4 \"El impresor al lector sobre la presente edicion\", which states that this seventh impression follows as closely as possible the first, made under the author's eye at Seville by Andrea Pescioni and Juan de Leon in the years 1585 to 1587, and restores the royal privilege, the dedication to the Duke of Osuna, the advertencia and the prologue that D. Pedro Enguera or his widow had dropped from the 1736 impression; the same note reports the marginal correction written by Tomas Francisco Prieto, Grabador general de la Real Casa de Moneda, against Enguera's claim to have had over two hundred plates cut — \"No hay tal cosa, que son las mismas que grabo el bienaventurado Don Juan de Arphe, honor de la nacion Espanola, excepto los ultimos Reloxes\" — and the 1795 printer's own account of buying the plates and having some twenty missing ones engraved. PR5 the Licencia y Privilegio of Philip II, Madrid 24 December 1585, to \"Juan de Arphe, Platero, vecino de la Villa de Valladolid, estante en la Ciudad de Sevilla\": an earlier six-year privilege had lapsed because the book \"se os habia quemado y le habiades vuelto a escribir\" and the blocks had been cut at great cost, so a twenty-year privilege is granted \"atento que era cosa muy conveniente para los Artifices y Plateros\", the Council treating it as a book \"de Geometria y oficio de Plateros\" and imposing the ordinary machinery of rubricated original, corrector, printed errata and tasa. PR10 and PR11 the author's prologue: that antiquity made no difference between the artificers now called sculptors and architects and those now called silversmiths; that the silversmith needs Arithmetic for the reduction of the quilates of gold and silver and the valuing of stones \"como lo ensenamos en nuestro Quilatador\", Geometry for the cutting and raising of plate, Astrology for sundials, Grafidia for drawing, Anatomy \"para entender los huesos y morcillos de una figura\", and Architecture; and that his aim is only to gather from the best authors \"solas las reglas necesarias para labrar artificiosamente la plata y oro, y otros metales\". PA1 the opening of Libro primero, \"Trata de las figuras geometricas, y cuerpos regulares e irregulares, con los cortes de sus laminas, los Reloxes Orizontales, Cilindros y Anulos\", with the verse epigraph naming architects, sculptors, silversmiths and painters, and the first sentence that of everything required in the art of working silver and gold \"la primera, y mas principal es la Geometria\". PR9, PR12, PA2 were opened as context." }, { "id": "colon-historia-del-almirante-1892-t1", "title": "Historia del Almirante Don Cristobal Colon, en la cual se da particular y verdadera relacion de su vida y de sus hechos, y del descubrimiento de las Indias Occidentales, llamadas Nuevo-Mundo, escrita por Don Fernando Colon, su hijo — primer volumen, containing the opening of the Escritura de Fray Roman (Pane)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=1FxbAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA281", "publisher": "Madrid, 1892; Coleccion de libros raros o curiosos que tratan de America, tomo quinto. Full-view digitisation of the Universidad Central (Facultad de Filosofia y Letras) copy, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "Registered as the vehicle in which the text of Fray Ramon Pane survives, and registered secondary rather than primary on the volume's own evidence. Its ADVERTENCIA, read here at PP11, states that the preliminaries \"que ha de llevar esta obra\" were not ready and are deferred to tomo VI of the Coleccion, and announces that the edition means to prove, \"sin dejar lugar a dudas (contra lo que escribio cierto americanista celebre)\", that the work was written by Fernando Colon — so the volume itself records that the authorship of the book carrying Pane's text was disputed when it was printed, and supplies in what was opened here no account of how the text descends. Nothing read in this volume states the language or the number of removes between Pane's lost original and this printing, and no such claim is made from it. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-19 as page scans: PP7, the half-title \"Coleccion de libros raros o curiosos que tratan de America — tomo quinto\"; PP9, the title page with \"MADRID 1892\" and \"PRIMER VOLUMEN\"; PP11, the Advertencia; PA277 and PA279, the Admiral's own words on the cemies, the cohoba cane and the three stones sent to the Catholic Monarchs with Antonio de Torres; PA281, the heading \"ESCRITURA DE FRAY ROMAN (PANE) DEL ORDEN DE SAN GERONIMO\" and its opening paragraph; PA282, the close of the preface and chapter I on the caves Cacibagiagua and Amaiauba; PA291-PA293, the Caracaracol and Baiamanicoel episode, the cogioba, the cave Jovovava with the cemies Boiniael and Maroyo, and chapter XII on Coaibai; PA301, the interrogation of the dead by the Buhitihu. The volume has no search layer: 'Ramon' returns zero hits, and every page above was found by walking." }, { "id": "colon-historia-del-almirante-1892-t2", "title": "Historia del Almirante Don Cristobal Colon ... escrita por Don Fernando Colon, su hijo — segundo volumen, containing the close of the Escritura de Fray Roman (Pane)", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=iEQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19", "publisher": "Madrid, 1892; Coleccion de libros raros o curiosos que tratan de America, tomo sexto. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "The continuation of the same text; the first volume breaks off at its page 302 in the middle of Pane's chapters on the Buhitihu and this volume resumes at its page 5 with the same subject, so the two together carry the whole of the piece the Historia prints as its chapter LXI. Registered secondary for the reasons given under colon-historia-del-almirante-1892-t1. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-19 as page scans: PA5, the cogioba and the kinds of cemi, with Pane's \"no se a que compararlas, por no haber visto una semejante a ellas en Espana ni en otra parte\"; PA17 and PA18, the images buried in the field, the two or three agi roots grown in the form of a cross, the mother of Guarionex, and the killing of Juan Mateo and his brother Antonio; PA19, the first baptism in the Espanola and the sentence \"por lo cual se necesita de fuerza y de castigo\"; PA20, Pane's closing paragraph and the colophon \"FIN DE LA OBRA DEL POBRE HEREMITA FR. ROMAN PANE\"; PA21, the opening of chapter LXII, which shows that the whole Relacion sits inside the Historia as one chapter; PA22, the 1496 return voyage. No search layer." }, { "id": "gomara-historia-de-las-indias-barcia-1749-t2", "title": "Francisco Lopez de Gomara, Historia de las Indias, as printed in Historiadores primitivos de las Indias Occidentales, que junto, traduxo en parte, y saco a luz, ilustrados con eruditas notas, y copiosos indices, el ilustrissimo senor D. Andres Gonzalez Barcia — tomo II", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=m24_AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA185", "publisher": "Francisco Lopez de Gomara, first printed 1552; Madrid, ano MDCCXLIX (1749), the second of the three tomes of Barcia's collection. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-19", "notes": "Gomara's own printed text in an eighteenth-century collection. Reliability is set well below the tier for two reasons. Gomara never crossed the Atlantic: he was chaplain and secretary to Hernan Cortes and wrote from the reports of others, so for the events of 1522-1523 in Nicaragua he is a second-hand witness working from relaciones he does not name on these pages. And the text is read in a 1749 reprint whose editor advertises on his own title page that he has \"traduxo en parte\" and annotated what he collected; nothing opened here collates this printing against the 1552 edition. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-19 as page scans: PP5, the title page with \"DIVIDIDOS EN TRES TOMOS. TOMO II. MADRID. ANO MDCCXLIX\"; PA185, the end of the chapter on pearls and cap. CXCIX \"De el Descubrimiento de Nicaragua\", with Gil Gonzalez de Avila's 1522 voyage, the cacique Nicoyan and the six idols; PA186, cap. CC \"De ciertas preguntas bien avisadas, que hico el Cacique Nicaragua\"; PA187, cap. CCI on Diriangen and the baptism figures, and the opening of cap. CCII on the conquest and settlement of Nicaragua. The volume has a search layer: 'Nicaragua' returns ten hits including the consecutive block PA185, PA186, PA188, PA190." }, { "id": "marquez-due-antichi-monumenti-roma-1804", "title": "Due antichi monumenti di architettura messicana illustrati da D. Pietro Marquez", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=8MQRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP9", "publisher": "Pedro Jose Marquez (Pietro Marquez), \"Socio delle Accad. di Belle Arti di Madrid, di Firenze, e di Bologna\"; dedicated \"Alla Molto Nobile, Illustre ed Imperiale Citta di Messico\"; Roma, presso il Salomoni, 1804, con permesso. Full-view digitisation of the New York Public Library (Lenox) copy, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.8, "accessed": "2026-08-22", "notes": "The 1804 Rome first printing, read here as page scans on 2026-08-22. Reliability is set below the tier because of what the book itself declares about its own evidence: Marquez had been expelled from New Spain with the Jesuits in 1767 and never saw either monument, and he says on his second page that he is making an extract of two printed Mexican reports - the Gazzetta ordinaria of Mexico City of 12 July 1785 for the Papantla monument, and a supplement to the Gazeta de Literatura of the end of 1791, \"Descrizione delle Antichita di Xochicalco scritta per D. Gius. Ant. Alzate\", for the second. Every measurement and every field observation in the volume is therefore at one remove; what is his own is the architectural reading, the conversion of the American measures into Roman ones, and the argument. Neither the Gazzetta nor the Alzate supplement was opened here, so nothing in this corpus collates his extract against them. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-22 as page scans: PP3 (the binding); PP9, the engraved title page with the eagle-on-nopal device, the Rome 1804 Salomoni imprint and the dedication to the city of Mexico; PA1, the opening on the Mexican nation, the Tlaxcalan alliance and the arts of Anahuac; PA2, naming the two printed relations and Leon y Gama's dissertation; PA3, the Totonac name Tajin and the situation of the monument near Papantla; PA4, the pyramidal form, the six bodies, Cholula, Clavigero, and the vara-to-Roman-palm conversion; PA13, on the burning of the indigenous books and the concealment of the monuments; PA16, the reconstruction of the five bodies of the Xochicalco building and the Ximotlalli seat; PA22, the underground galleries and their measurements; PA23, the observations on the ability of the builders and the temazcalli compared with the Greek and Roman laconicum; PA25, the sugar-mill builders quarrying the site and the passage on separating superstition from history and science; PA26, the roll of Boturini, Clavigero, Fabrega and Gama and the author's refusal to interpret the glyphs; PA27 and PA30, the appended extract of Cortes's letter in Italian; PA47, the Roman imprimatur of 12 January 1804 with the approbation signed by the architect Girolamo Masi. The volume has a search layer, but a poor one for Italian: 'Xochicalco' and 'messicana' both return zero while 'Tajin' returns the one hit at PA3, so the book was read by walking the pids from click3 rather than by searching it." }, { "id": "velasco-historia-reino-de-quito-quito-1841-t2", "title": "Historia del Reino de Quito en la America Meridional, tomo II y parte II, que contiene la Historia Antigua", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=dZZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7", "publisher": "\"Escrita por el Presbitero Dn. Juan de Velasco, nativo del mismo Reino\"; the title page dates the work \"Ano de 1789\"; Quito, Imprenta de Gobierno, por Juan Campuzano, 1841. Full-view digitisation, Google Books", "tier": "primary", "reliability": 0.7, "accessed": "2026-08-22", "notes": "The first printing of the second tome of Velasco's history, fifty-two years after he dated the work in exile in Italy, issued by the government press of the young republic. Reliability is set well below the tier because the edition states on its own preliminary leaves that it does not reproduce its manuscript faithfully: the Advertencia del Editor sobre el tomo 2 says that although at first it seemed safest to copy the text \"servilmente\", on closer examination the editor found the author's language defective - having written the work in Italy, where he had little practice of his native tongue - and corrected the style and the language, and it admits that grammatical faults and phrases the Castilian language will not bear have escaped into the edition. No wording printed here can therefore be attributed to Velasco verbatim, and this corpus attributes none. The same Advertencia records that the edition began with tomo 2 while additions were being made to tomo 1. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-22 as page scans: PP7, the title page; PP9 and PP11, the Advertencia del Editor, its moral reflection naming the Spaniards who showed \"crueldad inaudita\" in the civil wars and against the indigenous people, its account of the editorial method, and its close dated Quito 10 November 1841; PA1, the Introduccion and the opening of libro 1 with the four-epoch scheme; PA9, the union of Puruha with Quito, the succession law, the marriage of Toa and Duchicela and the Canari confederation. The volume has a working search layer, but it indexes the printing's own spellings: 'Scyri' and 'Caras' return zero where 'Puruha' returns ten, the running text printing Seyri for Scyri in the scan's own reading." }, { "id": "gonzalez-suarez-historia-general-ecuador-1890-t1", "title": "Historia general de la Republica del Ecuador, tomo primero - los tiempos antiguos, o el Ecuador antes de la conquista", "url": "https://books.google.com/books?id=fRDVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP11", "publisher": "\"Escrita por Federico Gonzalez Suarez, Presbitero\"; Quito, Imprenta del Clero, Carrera de Chile numero 14, 1890. Full-view digitisation of the Princeton University Library copy, Google Books", "tier": "secondary", "reliability": 0.85, "accessed": "2026-08-22", "notes": "The first volume of the seven-volume general history by the Quito priest, later archbishop, who was also the first systematic excavator of Ecuadorian sites. It is registered secondary because it is a nineteenth-century historian's narrative built on printed chronicles and on his own fieldwork, not a document of the period it describes. It is cited here as a hostile-but-fair witness on Velasco: Gonzalez Suarez uses the Historia antigua as a principal authority, states plainly where he thinks it wrong, and records what would have been lost without it. Pages opened and read on 2026-08-22 as page scans: PP11, the title page; PA53, the correction of the Quito conquest to Tupac-Yupanqui and of the beginning of Quichua domination to about 1450, with the reasons for preferring Cieza de Leon, Cabello Balboa and Montesinos to Velasco; PA60, note 9, on the scarcity of documents and on the manuscripts of Bravo de Saravia, Fray Marcos de Niza, Palomino and Montenegro that Velasco studied and that have not survived; PA61, on the two Cartas de Palomino, on the lost Historia de las guerras civiles entre Huascar y Atallhualpa written by the cacique Collahuaso, and on the resulting \"merito unico y casi excepcional\" of Velasco's book; PA90, on the difficulty of telling Scyri work from Inca work in the temples the conquistadors found at Quito. The volume has a good search layer: 'Velasco' returns twenty hits and 'Scyris' twenty." } ]